This document discusses health effects of radiation and nuclear waste management. It provides information on natural and man-made sources of radiation exposure and their relative contributions. It describes the types of radiation such as alpha, beta, gamma rays and their different properties. The principles of radiation protection including justification, optimization and dose limits are explained. Both acute and chronic effects of radiation are outlined along with factors influencing biological impact. The document also discusses management of radioactive waste and principles of reducing radiation exposure.

1. Health Effects of Radiation
&
Nuclear Waste Management
Biplab Das
Scientific Officer & Safety Coordinator
Kalpakkam Reprocessing Plant
BARC, Kalpakkam
1

2. NATURALSOURCES OF
RADIATION
• COSMIC RAYS
• EARTH’S CRUST
• AIR
• HUMAN BODY
2

3. Natural Radiation : Terrestrial sources
Radon, Thoron
Th, U - a few grams per 1,000,Kg of ground
material
K-40 : 30 Bq per gram of potassium
3

4. Radon and Thoron
Manavalakkurichi
&
Kerala coast
Stable
222Rn 218Rn
214Bi
210Tl Daughter
238U
234Th
234Pa
238U
230Th
226Ra
218Po
214Pb
218At
214Po
210Pb
210Bi
210Po
206Pb
Natural uranium
as ore in soil
Unstable parent
Gas
Gamma emitters
Alpha
emitters
212Bi
208Tl
220Rn
232Th
228Pa
228Th
224Ra
216Po
212Pb
212Po
208Pb
Gas
Gamma emitters
228Ra
Stable
Daughter
Thorium as ore in soil
Unstable parent
Alpha
emitters
86Rn222
4

5. List of Natural occurring and artificially produced
Radionuclides
238U – 4.5 x 109 y
232Th – 1.4 x 1010 y
40K – 1.3 x 109 y
14C – 5700 y
99mTc – 6 h
131I – 8 d
60Co – 5.26 y
137Cs – 30 y
239Pu – 24000 y
233U – 6.2 x 105 y
Natural Artificial
Present in earth crust
Produced in nuclear
and produced in the
reactors & using
atmosphere by cosmic
accelerators
radiation 5

6. Technologically Enhanced Sources (Man-Made)
Diagnostic X-rays, radiopharmaceuticals
Nuclear Weapons Tests fallout
Industrial Activities, Research
Consumer Products
Miscellaneous:
Air Travel, Transportation of Radioactive Material
6

7. Radon & Thoron
Air 51%
Food 12% Terrestrial 14%
Natural 87%
Cosmic 10%
2.5 mSv/y
Medical 12%
Manmade 13%
Misc. 0.3%
Fallout 0.4%
Occupational 0.2%
Nuclear 0.1%
7

8. hiigh enerrgy
iioniizziing rraadiiaattiion
Alpha particles
Beta particles
X -rays
Gamma rays
Neutrons
llow enerrgy
nnoonn--iioonniizz iinngg
Radio waves
Micro waves
Light
Heat
8

9. • RADIATION
• RADIO ACTIVITY
• RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
9

10. Unstable atoms attain stability by throwing out the excess
nucleons in the form of Radiation as Particles or
Electromagnetic waves.
Beta radiation
Tritium (unstable) Helium (stable)
Material with radioactive atoms are called
Radioactive Material.
RRaaddiiooaaccttiivviittyy
The process of spontaneous emission radiation by unstable nucleus
is called Radioactivity.
10

11. Example :
Beta radiation
Tritium
(unstable)
Helium
(stable)
11

12. Activity
Spontaneous decay of nucleus of an atom
Usually by emission of Particles ( Alpha and Beta )
And by electromagnetic Radiation ( X, Gamma ray )
12

13. Alpha Particles
• Heavy and Charged particles
• Cause more ionisation
• Loose energy faster
• Less penetration power
13

14. Beta Particles
• Smaller mass
• Chararged particles
• Cause ionisation
• Less penetration power
14

15. Gamma Rays
• More Penetrating waves
• Also cause ionisation
15

16. Penetrating power of Radiation
Alpha
4
2a ++
0
-1b- Beta
Paper Plastic Lead Concrete
0
0g Gamma and X-rays
1 Neutron
0n
Use of right shielding materials
reduces radiation exposure 16

17. Fission
• If neutron absorption occurs
in certain nuclei, fission can
be induced.
– 235U, 239Pu and 233U can all
undergo fission by the
absorption of a thermal
neutron
– 238U can fission from the
absorption of a fast neutron.
17

18. 18

19. Nuclear Fission
Consider a neutron bombarding a 235U nucleus:
19

20. Units of Radioactivity
• Becquerel (Bq) - the SI unit of
radioactivity. Defined as one radioactive
transformation per second.
• Curie (Ci) - the traditional unit of
radioactivity. Now defined as below:
• 1 curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 10 10 becquerel (Bq)
20

21. Units of Exposure
• Roentgen:
1 Roentgen = 2.58x10 -4 C/kg
• Absorbed Dose:
1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 100 Rad
• REM = Rad x W.F
21

22. Types of radiation exposures
External exposure
source
Internal exposure
source
Inhalation
Ingestion
Injection
Skin Absorptio22n

23. • Measures for control of exposures
 External exposures – TLD
 Internal exposures – PPE, ventilation and isolation
 Management control
 Training of personnel
 Adequate supervision and radiation protection
surveillance
23

24. ZONING
• Red Zone
• Amber Zone
• Green Zone
• White Zone
24

25. Radiation and Contamination
• Two frequently confused quantities
• Radiation arises as a flux of energy in the form of EM
waves or a stream of particles that gives rise to a field.
Energy absorbed per unit mass is the dose of radiation
• Contamination is the presence of radioactive material
in the wrong place. It gives rise to a human internal
hazard and to the presence of a radiation field (an
external hazard).
• Contamination control is an essential radiation
protection activity.
25

26. WHAT IS radioactive CONTAMINATION?
• Presence of radioactive material in undesired
place.
• Radioactive material either in powder or
liquid form can be present inside a glove box
but not in the operating /working area
26

27. Control of airborne contamination
• Result in internal exposure, skin contamination
• Design measure : Layout , Ventilation
• On-job protection: PPEs, Respirators etc
27

28. Control of Surface contamination:
area/equipment
• Result in airborne contamination, personnel
contamination and internal exposure
• Detection method : Swipe sample on the floor,
scan with monitor for fixed contamination
28

29. Control of Personnel Contamination
• Skin exposure or internal exposure
• Gloves, gumboots, plastic suit, Hoods
• Detection method: swipe samples and
scan with monitor, nasal swaps etc.
29

30. Swipe Samples
• Swipe samples indicate the amount of
transferable contamination
• Swipe a piece of absorbent sheet on the
floor or equipment
• Estimate the activity in the swipe paper
• Measure the area covered
• Expressed in terms of Bq /100 cm2
30

31. CONTROL OF INTERNAL
EXPOSURE
• RUBBER STATION
• VENTILLATION
• USING PPE
31

32. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Protective clothing serves two functions:
• Protects the individual from body
contamination.
• Prevents the spread of contamination
32

33. EVLAUATION OF
RADIATION STATUS
• AREA MONITORING- area gamma
monitors
• AIR MONITORING- air monitors, air
sampler
• CONTAMINATION MONITORING-swipe
samples
33

34. Evaluation of personnel exposure
• EXTERNAL-- TLD– DRD etc.
• INTERNAL– WHOLE BODY COUNTING,
BIO- ASSAY( URINE, BLOOD)
DOSELIMIT:INTERNAL+EXTERNAL= 20 mSv
DOSE RECORDS MAINTAINED
34

35. Biological Effects of Radiation
1. Somatic Effects
2. Hereditary Effects
35

36. Stochastic Effects
1. Probabilistic Occurrence of effect
2. No threshold dose
3. Low probability
4. Long latent Periods
5. Result of acute and chronic exposure
6. Important from protection point
36

37. Deterministic Effects
1. Severity of dose is considered
2. Threshold present
37

38. Deterministic Effects
– Occurs above threshold dose
– Severity increases with dose
– Tend to occur at
– whole-body doses > 100 rem.
Examples:
– Alopecia (hair loss)
– Cataracts
– Erythema (skin reddening)
– Radiation Sickness
– Temporary Sterility
38
Dose
Effects
“Dose-Response
Curves”

39. Stochastic Effects
• Occurs by chance
• Probability increases with
dose
• effects are documented
only at doses > 10 rem.
39
• Carcinogenesis
• Mutagenesis
• Teratogenesis
Dose
Effect
“Dose-Response
Curves”

40. While moderate doses cause well-documented
effects, one cannot
measure significantly effects at the
doses where real doses or regulated
doses occur
?
Effect
Dose 40

41. Type of Exposure
1. Acute Exposure:
Dose received in a short time
2. Chronic Exposure:
Dose received over longer time periods
41

42. Energy Deposition
• Radiation interacts by either ionizing or
exciting the atoms or molecules in the body
(water)
• Energy is deposited and absorbed as a result
of these interactions
• Absorbed Dose is defined as the energy
absorbed per unit mass of material (tissue in
this case)
42

43. How does radiation injure people?
• Produce free radicals.
• Break chemical bonds.
• Produce new chemical bonds and cross-linkage
between macromolecules.
• Damage molecules that regulate vital cell
processes (e.g. DNA, RNA, proteins).
43

44. Direct Action
• Radiation interacts directly with a molecule through
excitation or ionization
• The molecule dissociates
• The effect depends on which molecule was affected
Indirect Action
• The body is composed primarily of water and most direct
action will be on water
• This results in hydrolysis of water
End Result:
• Disruption cell membrane integrity, cellular chemistry and
DNA replication. 44

45. Biological Damage
• Damage can occur at various biological
levels
– Sub-cellular
– Cellular (cell death)
– Organ (malfunction)
– Organism (cancer, death)
45

46. Cellular Radio-sensitivity
Cells that divide more rapidly are more sensitive to
the effects of radiation ...
… essentially because the resulting effect is
seen more rapidly.
Most Sensitive:
Blood-forming organs
Reproductive organs
Eyes, Skin, Bone and teeth, Muscles
Least sensitive: Nervous system
46

47. Factors Influencing Biological Effect
• Total absorbed energy (dose)
• Dose rate
– Acute (seconds, minutes)
– Chronic (days, years)
• Type of radiation
• Source of radiation
– External
– Internal
• Age at exposure 47

48. Quality Factors
Radiation Quality Factor (Q)
Alpha particles 20
Beta particles 1
Gamma rays 1
48
Different Ionization densities
X-ray,γ-Ray, neutron-- not many ionizations
α- particles -- Very high density
β- particles -- High density at end

49. What will happen when radiation
interacts with tissues?
Cells are undamaged by the dose
X-ray passes straight
through cell
Þ
No change to cell
49

50. Cells are damaged, repair the
damage and operate normally
X-ray causes a
chemical reaction in
cell, but no damage
done or damage
repaired by cell
Þ
No change to cell
*
50

51. Cells die as a result of the
DNA damaged in a
“fatal” way”
Þ
Cell killed
*
damage
51

52. OBJECTIVE
Keeping radiation exposure As Low As
Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) and
within the prescribed limits;
Taking actions to prevent accidental
exposures,
Mitigating the consequences of any
accident that might occur in nuclear
and radiological installations.
52

53. PRINCPLE OF RADIATION PROTECTION
• JUSTIFICATION
• OPTIMISATION
• EQIVALENT DOSE LIMITS
53

54. Short-Term Effects of Radiation
Short-term effects usually occur
when there’s a large amount of
exposure to radiation.
54

55. Long-Term Effects of Radiation
These effects take longer to become apparent and can be
caused by much lower levels of radiation.
One of the most important long-term effects of radiation is that
of cancer in various parts of the body.
Uranium miners tended to get lung cancer due to breathing in
gases which emitted alpha particles.
People who painted the dials of clocks with luminous paint
developed one cancer from using their lips to make points on
the brushes.
First example of radiation induced leukaemia (blood cancer)
55

56. Exposure to ionising radiation
does not necessarily cause cancer
The mechanisms for cancer occurring are poorly understood at
the moment. One theory is that the ionising radiation affects the
DNA material within us – our genetic make-up. Our DNA
contains genetic instructions which control the operation and
reproduction of the cells. If ionisations caused by ionising
radiations alter these instructions in the DNA, there is a chance
that cancer will develop.
Genetic damage can be caused to cells by radiation, including
cells which are involved in reproduction.
56

57. ACUTE RADIATION DOSE
An acute radiation dose more than 10 rad or
greater, to the whole body delivered during a
short period of time.
Blood-Forming Organ
• Dose threshold : >100 rad
• Affected organs/cells : bone marrow, the
spleen and lymphatic tissue.
Symptoms: Internal bleeding, fatigue, bacterial
infections, and fever.
57

58. Gastrointestinal Tract Syndrome : >1000 Rad
• Affected organs/cells: Linings of stomach & intestines.
• Symptoms: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration,
electrolytic imbalance
Central nervous system syndrome
• Dose threshold: >5000 Rad
• Affected cells: Nerve Cells.
• Symptoms: loss of coordination, confusion, coma,
convulsions, shock, and the symptoms of the blood
forming organ
58

59. Chronic dose
A chronic dose is a relatively small amount of
radiation received over a long period of time.
• The body is better equipped to tolerate a chronic dose
than an acute dose. The body has time to repair
damage because a smaller percentage of the cells
need repair at any given time. The body also has time
to replace dead or non-functioning cells with new,
healthy cells.
• This is the type of dose received as occupational
exposure.
59

60. • Reproductive System: Doses of about 6 Gy are
required to permanently sterilize males (sterility
occurs after several months)
• Lens of Eye: At doses 2-6 Gy, damage to the lens,
significant to cause eventual cataract formation.
• Skin: Dose of 6-8 Sievert — effects occur 1-2
days after exposure: Effects: Erythema.
• Cataract Dose of 50 Sievert, Superficial Cataract
• Lungs: Relatively radio resistant
Doses at 7-8 Sievert, 60

61. Prompt Effects
• Examples
• Blood count changes----above 10 rem
• Vomiting (threshold)---100 rem
• Mortality (threshold)---150 rem
• LD50/60* (with minimal supportive care)--320 – 360
rem
• LD50/60---(with supportive medical treatment)--480 – 540 rem
• 100% mortality --(with best available treatment) -800 rem
61
Seen immediately after large doses of radiation
delivered over short periods of time

62. Delayed Effect- Cataract
• Cataracts are induced when a dose exceeding
approximately 200-300 Rem is delivered to the
lens of the eye.
• Radiation-induced cataracts may take many
months to years to appear.
• Radiation-induced cancers may take 10 - 15
years or more to appear.
62
That may appear months or years after a radiation
exposure. Ex-cataract and cancer

63. RADIOACTIVE WASTE
MANAGEMENT

64. Radioactive Waste
Radioactive wastes are waste containing
radioactive chemical elements that do not
have a practical purpose.

65. Objective of Radioactive Waste
Management
To protect radiation workers, general public
and their environment from potential
hazards arising from waste

66. SOURCES OF
RADIOACTIVE WASTES
• Natural radioactive material
• Artificial radioactive elements by
neutron activation ( Co-60 )
• Fission products and alpha wastes
from nuclear fission

67. Rad.Waste from Nuclear Fuel Cycle
– Mining and Milling,
– Fuel Fabrication,
– Nuclear Power Generation
– Reprocessing & Waste Management
• Fission products: Cs137, I131, Sr90
• Activation products: Ar41, Co60, H3
• Solid and Liquid Waste from decontamination of equipment,
spaces and materials, contaminated equipment etc.

68. Rad. Waste from Industries, Medical facilities
and Research
Sealed Spent Sources, Contaminated filter
papers. Plastics, Glassware, Syringes,
Carcasses etc.
Co60, C14, P32, Sr90, Au198, Ir192, Cs137

69. Basic Philosophies of Waste
Management
DDeellaayy aanndd ddeeccaayy
DDiilluuttee aanndd ddiissppeerrssee
CCoonncceennttrraattee && ccoonnttaaiinn

70. CATEGORIES OF RADIOACTIVE
WASTE
W A S T E S F R O M N U C L E A R I N D U S T R Y
L I Q U I D W A S T E
S O L I D W A S T E G A S E O U S W A S T E
N o n - t r e a t a b le T r e a t a b l e

71. LIQUID WASTES – SEGREGATION,
COLLECTION & TRANSPORT
Type
Category&
Sp. activity
(mCi /l)
Source Collection Disposal
Potentially
Active I (<10-6)
Personal
washes &
showers
Pipelines Dilution and
discharge
Low Level II (<10-3) &
III (<10-1)
Sumps, Labs
&
decontaminati
on
Spl. Pipelines/
tankers
Treatment,
dilution and
discharge
Intermediate
Level IV (<104) Research
Activities
Spl.
Containers/tankers
Treatment,
dilution and
discharge
High Level V (>104) Reprocessing
of spent fuel
Spl.
containers/tankers
after cooling
Immobilisation

72. TREATMENT OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE LEVEL
LIQUID WASTES
• Solid Phase Separation
• Chemical Precipitation( Using Chemicals to precipitate Cs and Sr)
• Ion-exchange ( Polishing treatment prior to Disposal Cs 137)
• Evaporation (After proper conditioning passed thro evaporator and
the vapor is condensed)

73. CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTE
CATEGORY SURFACE DOSE
[D] (mR/h) REMARKS
I D < 200 No shielding required
II 200 < D < 2000 Some shielding
III D > 2000 Shielding required
IV
Alpha
Contaminated
(Bq/m3)
Specially treated

74. TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTES

75. Types of waste and Immobilisation Matrix
Types of waste
 Sludges
 Spent ion-exchange resins
 Evaporator bottoms
Immobilisation Matrix
 Cement
 Bitumen
 Plastics
 Glass or Synrock

76. Near Surface Disposal Facilities
Disposal Criteria
• The solid waste, packed suitably are disposed in the Near Surface
Disposal Facilities.
• These NSDF are of three types:
– Brick Walled Trenches – 20 mR/hr.
– RCC Trenches 20 mR/hr to 50 R/hr.
– Tile Holes > 50 R/hr.
• The facilities are engineered to provide multiple barriers between
the waste and the environment.
• The higher the surface dose, the more the number of barriers.
• NSDFs are designed to hold the waste for up to 300 years - activity
would see 10 half lives or decay to 1/210 of its original value.

77. CLASSIFICATION OF GASEOUS WASTES
CATEGORY SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
[A] (Bq/ml)
I A <3.7 X 10-6
II 3.7x10-6 < A < 3.7x10-2
III A > 10-2

78. MANAGEMENT OF GASEOUS WASTES
• Particulate Removal
- High Efficiency Filter
• Gaseous Waste Removal
- Charcoal Filter & Molecular Sieve
• Gaseous Wastes from Nuclear Power Plants
– Particulate Filter System (such as HEPA)
– Iodine Adsorption System
– Noble Gas Delay System
• Gaseous Wastes from Fuel Reprocessing Plants
– 85Kr by cryogenic distillation and adsorption
– 129I by caustic scrubbing

79. SURVEILLANCE
• REGULAR AREA / AIR MONITORING
• PERIODIC BORE WELL WATER ANALYSIS
• PERIODIC SOIL ANALYSIS
• PERIODIC VEGETATION SAMPLES
• ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEY AROUND
NUCLEAR FACILITY

80. Ion-exchange method
Ion-exchange is one of the methods used to remove the
radionuclides from the liquid waste.
e.g. If NaCl has to be removed from a liquid
R-H+ + NaCl  R-Na+ + HCl (Cation exchange)
R+OH- + HCl  R+Cl- + H2O (Anion exchange)
Regeneration of the bed….
2 R-Na+ + H2So4  2 R-H+ + Na2SO4
R+Cl- + NaoH  R+OH- + NaCl

81. Solidified high level waste equivalent to
power consumed by an average Indian
family in 25 years, if all the power is from
nuclear power station.