Group VII elements are called halogens. They exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) and have seven electrons in their outer shell. Fluorine has the smallest atomic radius while iodine has the largest due to more electron shells. Melting and boiling points decrease from fluorine to iodine due to weaker van der Waals forces between larger molecules. Electronegativity decreases from fluorine to iodine as the nucleus attracts electrons less. Halogens can gain electrons to form ions or share electrons to form covalent bonds. More reactive halogens can displace less reactive ones from solutions.
This document provides information about alkali metals and describes the extraction and uses of sodium and sodium compounds. It discusses the periodic table classification of alkali metals. Key points include:
- Alkali metals are soft, silvery-white reactive metals found in Group 1 of the periodic table.
- Sodium is extracted commercially via the Downs process, which involves electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
- Sodium reacts violently with water and is used to produce sodium hydroxide and other sodium compounds.
- Sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate are manufactured via electrolysis or other chemical processes and have various industrial and household applications.
The document discusses the physical and chemical properties of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals. It provides details about their ionization energies, reactivity, reactions with water and other substances, and color imparted to flames. Alkali metals have low melting points due to weak metallic bonding. Their reactivity increases down the group as ionization energy decreases. Alkaline earth metals have higher melting points than alkali metals due to smaller atomic size and stronger metallic bonds. Their reactivity is also less than alkali metals.
The document discusses the lanthanide series of f-block elements. It provides the electronic configurations of the lanthanide elements from Lanthanum to Lutetium. It describes the lanthanide contraction effect where atomic and ionic radii decrease across the series. Key effects of lanthanide contraction include decreased basicity and similar ionic radii of post-lanthanide elements to those in the previous period. The document also briefly introduces the actinide series and notes their similar properties to lanthanides but with 5f electrons instead of 4f.
This document discusses the properties and characteristics of alkaline earth metals. It begins by defining alkaline earth metals as group 2 elements with an outer electron configuration of ns2. Some key points made include:
- Alkaline earth metals have higher ionization energies than alkali metals. Ionization energy decreases down the group as atomic size increases.
- Their physical properties include being silvery-white, soft metals that are stronger oxidizers than alkali metals. They impart unique flame colors.
- Chemically, they readily react with oxygen, water and halogens. Reactivity increases down the group. They form basic hydroxides except for beryllium.
- The document also discusses trends
The document discusses the properties and reactions of alkali metals. It notes that there are 6 alkali metals - lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. Alkali metals are found in common items like salt and play an important role in sustaining life. They have low melting and boiling points compared to other metals. All alkali metals vigorously react with water, producing hydrogen gas and the metal hydroxide, with the reaction speed and violence increasing down the group. Salt is produced through the vigorous reaction of sodium with chlorine gas.
The document discusses four methods for preparing salts: 1) Reacting a metal with an acid, 2) Reacting an insoluble base with an acid, 3) Neutralizing an alkali with an acid through titration, and 4) Precipitation. It then provides examples of soluble and insoluble compounds, and explains how to specifically prepare zinc sulfate by reacting zinc powder with sulfuric acid. The document asks to describe how to prepare several example salts using these methods.
Group VII elements are called halogens. They exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) and have seven electrons in their outer shell. Fluorine has the smallest atomic radius while iodine has the largest due to more electron shells. Melting and boiling points decrease from fluorine to iodine due to weaker van der Waals forces between larger molecules. Electronegativity decreases from fluorine to iodine as the nucleus attracts electrons less. Halogens can gain electrons to form ions or share electrons to form covalent bonds. More reactive halogens can displace less reactive ones from solutions.
This document provides information about alkali metals and describes the extraction and uses of sodium and sodium compounds. It discusses the periodic table classification of alkali metals. Key points include:
- Alkali metals are soft, silvery-white reactive metals found in Group 1 of the periodic table.
- Sodium is extracted commercially via the Downs process, which involves electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
- Sodium reacts violently with water and is used to produce sodium hydroxide and other sodium compounds.
- Sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate are manufactured via electrolysis or other chemical processes and have various industrial and household applications.
The document discusses the physical and chemical properties of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals. It provides details about their ionization energies, reactivity, reactions with water and other substances, and color imparted to flames. Alkali metals have low melting points due to weak metallic bonding. Their reactivity increases down the group as ionization energy decreases. Alkaline earth metals have higher melting points than alkali metals due to smaller atomic size and stronger metallic bonds. Their reactivity is also less than alkali metals.
The document discusses the lanthanide series of f-block elements. It provides the electronic configurations of the lanthanide elements from Lanthanum to Lutetium. It describes the lanthanide contraction effect where atomic and ionic radii decrease across the series. Key effects of lanthanide contraction include decreased basicity and similar ionic radii of post-lanthanide elements to those in the previous period. The document also briefly introduces the actinide series and notes their similar properties to lanthanides but with 5f electrons instead of 4f.
This document discusses the properties and characteristics of alkaline earth metals. It begins by defining alkaline earth metals as group 2 elements with an outer electron configuration of ns2. Some key points made include:
- Alkaline earth metals have higher ionization energies than alkali metals. Ionization energy decreases down the group as atomic size increases.
- Their physical properties include being silvery-white, soft metals that are stronger oxidizers than alkali metals. They impart unique flame colors.
- Chemically, they readily react with oxygen, water and halogens. Reactivity increases down the group. They form basic hydroxides except for beryllium.
- The document also discusses trends
The document discusses the properties and reactions of alkali metals. It notes that there are 6 alkali metals - lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. Alkali metals are found in common items like salt and play an important role in sustaining life. They have low melting and boiling points compared to other metals. All alkali metals vigorously react with water, producing hydrogen gas and the metal hydroxide, with the reaction speed and violence increasing down the group. Salt is produced through the vigorous reaction of sodium with chlorine gas.
The document discusses four methods for preparing salts: 1) Reacting a metal with an acid, 2) Reacting an insoluble base with an acid, 3) Neutralizing an alkali with an acid through titration, and 4) Precipitation. It then provides examples of soluble and insoluble compounds, and explains how to specifically prepare zinc sulfate by reacting zinc powder with sulfuric acid. The document asks to describe how to prepare several example salts using these methods.
This document provides information about the boron family (Group 13) of the periodic table. It discusses the elements in Group 13 - boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl). It details their electronic configurations, occurrence in nature, extraction methods, and chemical and physical properties. In particular, it focuses on the extraction of aluminium via the Bayer process and discusses the uses of aluminium and its environmental impacts.
The document provides information about grade 10 IGCSE chemistry content related to properties and reactions of metals. It discusses distinguishing metals from non-metals, reactivity series, extraction of metals like iron from ores, and uses of metals such as aluminum and zinc. It also describes physical and chemical properties of metals, structure and properties of alloys, and reactions of metals with water, steam, and acids to determine reactivity order.
Carbon exists in several allotropes with unique properties. Graphite has layered structures that allow for easy sliding of layers and is used as lubricant and pencil lead. Diamond has a tetrahedral structure and is the hardest material. Fullerenes like buckminsterfullerene have soccer ball shapes. Carbon also forms many inorganic compounds including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonates, bicarbonates, carbides and cyanides that have various applications. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.
This document discusses different types of oxides:
- Acidic oxides are formed from nonmetals and produce acidic solutions. Basic oxides are formed from metals and produce basic solutions.
- Neutral oxides do not react with acids or bases. Amphoteric oxides can behave as either acids or bases depending on the other reactants.
- Common acidic oxides include SO2 and SiO2. Sodium oxide (Na2O) and calcium oxide (CaO) are examples of basic oxides. Zinc oxide and aluminum oxide are amphoteric oxides that can react as either acids or bases.
This document provides information about electrolysis. It discusses:
1. How electrolysis can be used to split up ionic compounds by melting them or dissolving them in water. Positive ions move to the negative cathode and negative ions move to the positive anode.
2. The rules for what products are formed at the electrodes during electrolysis of molten ionic compounds and ionic solutions. Hydrogen, metals, halogens, oxygen may be produced depending on the ions present.
3. Industrial applications of electrolysis including producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide from salt water, and purifying copper.
This document discusses the characteristic properties of s-block elements, which include the alkali metals (Group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group IIA). Some key points discussed include:
- S-block elements have their outermost shell electrons in the s orbital.
- Alkali metals react vigorously with water to form alkaline hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Reactivity increases down the group.
- They form oxides, peroxides, and superoxides with oxygen. Oxidation states include -2, -1, and -1/2.
- Properties such as ionization energy, hydration energy, and metallic character generally decrease or increase moving down a group and across a period,
The document discusses the chemical properties of alkali metals. It explains that alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen and water. The reactivity increases down the group as the atoms get larger, shielding the outer electrons from the nucleus and making them easier to lose. Equations for reactions of lithium, sodium, and potassium with oxygen, water, and other substances are provided. Flame tests for group 2 metals are also discussed.
This document discusses the octet rule for chemical bonding. It states that the octet rule describes the tendency of atoms to attain noble gas configurations by gaining, losing or sharing electrons to acquire eight electrons in their outer shell. There are exceptions when the octet is not complete, such as with boron trifluoride (BF3), or when it is expanded as in phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5) which has 10 electrons around the phosphorus atom. The limitations of the octet rule are also outlined.
This is an effort to make ppt of p block elements , a topic in XII, chemistry(cbse) , whom as a tutor i have often felt students are horrified due to its large text size, long descriptipns, several information to be remembered and several reasonings to keep in mind.
Hope this ppt would solve thier problem of a thorough preparation of topic with all important aspects covered in the ppt.
Founder Dr Mona Srivastava
Masterchemclasses
This document discusses different types of oxides based on their reactions with water and acids or bases. It defines acidic, basic, amphoteric, and neutral oxides. Acidic oxides react with water to form acids, while basic oxides react with acids to form salts and water. Amphoteric oxides can behave as either acidic or basic oxides depending on the reaction. Neutral oxides show no acidic or basic properties and are insoluble in water. The document provides examples of common oxides that fall into each category and an decision tree for classifying an unknown oxide based on its solubility properties.
Ionic bonds form when a metal transfers an electron to a nonmetal, giving each atom an octet of electrons. For example, sodium loses an electron to form Na+ while chlorine gains that electron to form Cl-. The resulting ions are held together by electrostatic attraction to form an ionic compound, sodium chloride (NaCl). NaCl crystallizes into a repeating pattern where Na+ and Cl- ions alternate in a crystal lattice. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or dissolved due to the movement of ions.
The document discusses ionic compounds and their properties. It defines ionic compounds as formed from positively and negatively charged ions. Sodium chloride is given as an example where sodium loses an electron to become Na+ and chlorine gains an electron to become Cl-. Ionic compounds form crystalline structures and dissolve into ions in water, allowing them to conduct electricity. Common polyatomic ions are also discussed.
The document discusses the properties and extraction of sodium and its compounds. It describes that sodium is extracted through electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using the Downs process. Sodium reacts violently with water and acids, forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate are important industrial compounds used to make paper, soap and glass.
Properties and Formation of Ionic Compounds PowerpointNeQuelle DeFord
Ionic compounds form when ions bond through electrostatic attraction. Metals form cations by losing electrons to achieve a full outer shell, while nonmetals form anions by gaining electrons. Cations and anions are attracted due to their opposite charges. Ionic compounds have high melting points, are crystalline solids, and dissolve in water due to the separation of ions. They do not conduct electricity as solids but do so as liquids or dissolved solutions.
The document discusses redox reactions, including definitions of oxidation, reduction, oxidizing agents and reducing agents. It provides examples of redox reactions like magnesium burning in oxygen, bromine water oxidizing iron(II) ions, and the displacement of metals in salt solutions. It also describes how electrons are transferred during redox reactions and how redox reactions can occur at a distance using a salt bridge.
Chapter 8 redox reactions ppt for class 11 CBSEritik
This document discusses oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and oxidation states. It defines oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons. Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Oxidation numbers are used to track electron transfers and determine if a substance is being oxidized or reduced in a reaction. Common oxidation states of elements are discussed. Rules are provided for determining oxidation numbers based on electronegativity differences in molecules and ions.
The document is a guide about the halogens for GCSE chemistry students. It discusses the key properties and trends within group VII of the periodic table. The guide covers topics such as physical appearances, boiling points, electronic configurations, atomic sizes, and reactivity trends. It also describes reactions of halogens with metals and displacement reactions between halides.
1. The document discusses the reactions of halogens, including their reactions with metals like sodium and iron, and with non-metals like hydrogen.
2. It explains that the reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group, with fluorine being the most reactive and reacting violently with iron wool and hydrogen, while iodine reacts only slowly.
3. Halogen displacement reactions are described as redox reactions, where the more reactive halogen oxidizes the halide ion, gaining electrons itself and being reduced to form halide ions.
This document discusses chemical bonding and macromolecular structures. It begins by explaining the different types of bonds - ionic bonds formed between metals and non-metals by electron transfer, and covalent bonds formed between non-metals by electron sharing. It describes the properties of ionic and covalent compounds. It then discusses macromolecular structures found in substances like diamond, graphite and metals. It explains metallic bonding and compares the structures and properties of diamond and graphite. In the end, it discusses the different uses of diamond and graphite based on their properties.
The halogens include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. They are highly reactive nonmetals that form colored gases. Reactivity decreases down the group as atomic size increases. The halogens react similarly because they each need one electron to achieve a stable outer shell of 8 electrons, so they readily accept electrons from other elements.
This document provides information about the boron family (Group 13) of the periodic table. It discusses the elements in Group 13 - boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl). It details their electronic configurations, occurrence in nature, extraction methods, and chemical and physical properties. In particular, it focuses on the extraction of aluminium via the Bayer process and discusses the uses of aluminium and its environmental impacts.
The document provides information about grade 10 IGCSE chemistry content related to properties and reactions of metals. It discusses distinguishing metals from non-metals, reactivity series, extraction of metals like iron from ores, and uses of metals such as aluminum and zinc. It also describes physical and chemical properties of metals, structure and properties of alloys, and reactions of metals with water, steam, and acids to determine reactivity order.
Carbon exists in several allotropes with unique properties. Graphite has layered structures that allow for easy sliding of layers and is used as lubricant and pencil lead. Diamond has a tetrahedral structure and is the hardest material. Fullerenes like buckminsterfullerene have soccer ball shapes. Carbon also forms many inorganic compounds including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonates, bicarbonates, carbides and cyanides that have various applications. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.
This document discusses different types of oxides:
- Acidic oxides are formed from nonmetals and produce acidic solutions. Basic oxides are formed from metals and produce basic solutions.
- Neutral oxides do not react with acids or bases. Amphoteric oxides can behave as either acids or bases depending on the other reactants.
- Common acidic oxides include SO2 and SiO2. Sodium oxide (Na2O) and calcium oxide (CaO) are examples of basic oxides. Zinc oxide and aluminum oxide are amphoteric oxides that can react as either acids or bases.
This document provides information about electrolysis. It discusses:
1. How electrolysis can be used to split up ionic compounds by melting them or dissolving them in water. Positive ions move to the negative cathode and negative ions move to the positive anode.
2. The rules for what products are formed at the electrodes during electrolysis of molten ionic compounds and ionic solutions. Hydrogen, metals, halogens, oxygen may be produced depending on the ions present.
3. Industrial applications of electrolysis including producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide from salt water, and purifying copper.
This document discusses the characteristic properties of s-block elements, which include the alkali metals (Group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group IIA). Some key points discussed include:
- S-block elements have their outermost shell electrons in the s orbital.
- Alkali metals react vigorously with water to form alkaline hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Reactivity increases down the group.
- They form oxides, peroxides, and superoxides with oxygen. Oxidation states include -2, -1, and -1/2.
- Properties such as ionization energy, hydration energy, and metallic character generally decrease or increase moving down a group and across a period,
The document discusses the chemical properties of alkali metals. It explains that alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen and water. The reactivity increases down the group as the atoms get larger, shielding the outer electrons from the nucleus and making them easier to lose. Equations for reactions of lithium, sodium, and potassium with oxygen, water, and other substances are provided. Flame tests for group 2 metals are also discussed.
This document discusses the octet rule for chemical bonding. It states that the octet rule describes the tendency of atoms to attain noble gas configurations by gaining, losing or sharing electrons to acquire eight electrons in their outer shell. There are exceptions when the octet is not complete, such as with boron trifluoride (BF3), or when it is expanded as in phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5) which has 10 electrons around the phosphorus atom. The limitations of the octet rule are also outlined.
This is an effort to make ppt of p block elements , a topic in XII, chemistry(cbse) , whom as a tutor i have often felt students are horrified due to its large text size, long descriptipns, several information to be remembered and several reasonings to keep in mind.
Hope this ppt would solve thier problem of a thorough preparation of topic with all important aspects covered in the ppt.
Founder Dr Mona Srivastava
Masterchemclasses
This document discusses different types of oxides based on their reactions with water and acids or bases. It defines acidic, basic, amphoteric, and neutral oxides. Acidic oxides react with water to form acids, while basic oxides react with acids to form salts and water. Amphoteric oxides can behave as either acidic or basic oxides depending on the reaction. Neutral oxides show no acidic or basic properties and are insoluble in water. The document provides examples of common oxides that fall into each category and an decision tree for classifying an unknown oxide based on its solubility properties.
Ionic bonds form when a metal transfers an electron to a nonmetal, giving each atom an octet of electrons. For example, sodium loses an electron to form Na+ while chlorine gains that electron to form Cl-. The resulting ions are held together by electrostatic attraction to form an ionic compound, sodium chloride (NaCl). NaCl crystallizes into a repeating pattern where Na+ and Cl- ions alternate in a crystal lattice. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or dissolved due to the movement of ions.
The document discusses ionic compounds and their properties. It defines ionic compounds as formed from positively and negatively charged ions. Sodium chloride is given as an example where sodium loses an electron to become Na+ and chlorine gains an electron to become Cl-. Ionic compounds form crystalline structures and dissolve into ions in water, allowing them to conduct electricity. Common polyatomic ions are also discussed.
The document discusses the properties and extraction of sodium and its compounds. It describes that sodium is extracted through electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using the Downs process. Sodium reacts violently with water and acids, forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate are important industrial compounds used to make paper, soap and glass.
Properties and Formation of Ionic Compounds PowerpointNeQuelle DeFord
Ionic compounds form when ions bond through electrostatic attraction. Metals form cations by losing electrons to achieve a full outer shell, while nonmetals form anions by gaining electrons. Cations and anions are attracted due to their opposite charges. Ionic compounds have high melting points, are crystalline solids, and dissolve in water due to the separation of ions. They do not conduct electricity as solids but do so as liquids or dissolved solutions.
The document discusses redox reactions, including definitions of oxidation, reduction, oxidizing agents and reducing agents. It provides examples of redox reactions like magnesium burning in oxygen, bromine water oxidizing iron(II) ions, and the displacement of metals in salt solutions. It also describes how electrons are transferred during redox reactions and how redox reactions can occur at a distance using a salt bridge.
Chapter 8 redox reactions ppt for class 11 CBSEritik
This document discusses oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and oxidation states. It defines oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons. Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Oxidation numbers are used to track electron transfers and determine if a substance is being oxidized or reduced in a reaction. Common oxidation states of elements are discussed. Rules are provided for determining oxidation numbers based on electronegativity differences in molecules and ions.
The document is a guide about the halogens for GCSE chemistry students. It discusses the key properties and trends within group VII of the periodic table. The guide covers topics such as physical appearances, boiling points, electronic configurations, atomic sizes, and reactivity trends. It also describes reactions of halogens with metals and displacement reactions between halides.
1. The document discusses the reactions of halogens, including their reactions with metals like sodium and iron, and with non-metals like hydrogen.
2. It explains that the reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group, with fluorine being the most reactive and reacting violently with iron wool and hydrogen, while iodine reacts only slowly.
3. Halogen displacement reactions are described as redox reactions, where the more reactive halogen oxidizes the halide ion, gaining electrons itself and being reduced to form halide ions.
This document discusses chemical bonding and macromolecular structures. It begins by explaining the different types of bonds - ionic bonds formed between metals and non-metals by electron transfer, and covalent bonds formed between non-metals by electron sharing. It describes the properties of ionic and covalent compounds. It then discusses macromolecular structures found in substances like diamond, graphite and metals. It explains metallic bonding and compares the structures and properties of diamond and graphite. In the end, it discusses the different uses of diamond and graphite based on their properties.
The halogens include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. They are highly reactive nonmetals that form colored gases. Reactivity decreases down the group as atomic size increases. The halogens react similarly because they each need one electron to achieve a stable outer shell of 8 electrons, so they readily accept electrons from other elements.
The document discusses acids, bases, and salts. It defines acids as compounds that produce hydrogen ions (H+) in water, and bases as substances that can accept hydrogen ions or donate electron pairs to form bonds. Acids react with bases to form salts and water. Salts are ionic compounds formed from the reaction of acids and bases. Common examples and uses of acids, bases, and salts are provided.
The document discusses acids, bases and salts. It defines acids as substances that produce hydrogen ions (H+) in water and bases as substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH-). It describes using pH scales, indicators like litmus paper, and titration to determine if a substance is acidic, basic, or neutral. Common acids include hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid while common bases include sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide. Salts are formed through neutralization reactions between acids and bases. Methods for preparing various salts are outlined.
The document discusses the properties of group 16 (chalcogen) elements (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, polonium). Key points include:
- They have the general electronic configuration of ns2np4 and can exhibit oxidation states of -2, +2, +4, and +6.
- Properties vary periodically down the group with atomic size increasing and ionization energy/electronegativity decreasing.
- Oxygen is a gas that forms strong diatomic bonds while sulfur exists as solid rings.
- Important compounds formed include hydrides, halides like sulfur hexafluoride, and oxoacids such as sulfuric acid.
- O
1. The document discusses redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions in terms of oxidation and reduction processes. It defines oxidation as a loss of electrons, hydrogen, or an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a gain of electrons, hydrogen, or a decrease in oxidation number.
2. An example of an apple browning is provided, where the exposed iron in damaged apple cells reacts with oxygen and enzymes through oxidation. Tips are given to prevent browning, such as coating slices in acid.
3. Redox reactions are defined as those where oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously, often involving the transfer of electrons between reactants. Oxidizing agents undergo reduction while reducing agents undergo oxidation.
1. Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons to form electrically charged particles. Ionic compounds have high melting points and conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water.
2. Transition metal hydroxides are insoluble in water and form precipitates when a soluble transition metal compound is mixed with sodium hydroxide solution.
3. Spectroscopy studies the patterns of light emitted from heated samples to identify elements and discover new elements like rubidium and caesium.
The document discusses the properties of group 17 elements (halogens) - fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. It describes their electron configurations, tendency to form diatomic molecules, oxidation states, atomic and ionic radii trends, ionization energies, electronegativity trends and color properties. It also summarizes the trends in physical properties and reactivities of hydrogen halides, halides, oxoacids, interhalogen compounds and individual elements within the group.
1. Oxidation is any chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons from one substance to another. Iron rusting is a common example of oxidation where iron reacts with oxygen and loses electrons.
2. There are several types of oxidative reactions including dehydrogenation, introduction of oxygen into a molecule, and combinations of dehydrogenation and oxygen introduction.
3. Liquid phase oxidation involves free radical chain reactions and is used to convert petroleum-based materials into commodity chemicals. Hydroperoxide is often a major product.
This features the types of chemical reactions: Combustion, Neutralization, Precipitation and RedOx Reactions.
There are sample in each of the type of reaction that can help the learners understand more about each type.
The document discusses halogens and their medicinal uses. It covers the five halogens found in group 17 of the periodic table (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine) and their physical properties like density and electronegativity decreasing from fluorine to iodine. Halogens and halogenides have medical importance, with chlorinated lime, iodine solutions, and salts like sodium chloride being used. Hypochlorites are also discussed as unstable compounds containing hypochlorite ion, used for bleaching, disinfection and water treatment when in aqueous solution.
This document discusses redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions, which involve the transfer of electrons between reactants. It defines redox, oxidation, and reduction in terms of electron transfer and changes in oxidation states. It describes the different types of redox reactions and explains how to write balanced half-reactions and full redox equations. It also discusses oxidation numbers and how they are used to identify redox reactions. Common oxidizing and reducing agents are introduced along with tests to identify them. Examples of redox reactions in everyday life are mentioned.
Class 12 Chemistry Practical By Bharat Panchal.pdfSitishKumarJena
This document provides information about qualitative chemical analysis including:
1) Qualitative chemical analysis deals with identifying elements or grouping elements present in a sample. Negatively charged radicals are called acidic and positively charged are called basic.
2) Common colored basic radicals include Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cr3+, Ni2+, Co2+, and Mn2+. Ferrous salts are light green and ferric salts are brown. Nickel salts are bluish green.
3) A salt containing lead turns black over time due to formation of black lead sulfide in the atmosphere. Preliminary tests can provide information about ions present like sodium imparting a golden yellow flame color.
This document discusses elements, compounds, and their properties. It provides examples of common pure substances like salt, sugar, and water and their chemical formulas and components. Compounds are defined as being made up of two or more elements that are chemically combined, producing new properties. Compounds have fixed proportions of elements and chemical names, and can only be separated by chemical means unlike elements. The poem mentions water and salt as examples of compounds found in Mr. Purey's lab, along with their elemental components.
1) The document is a seminar report on the oxidation of organic compounds by d-block metals. It discusses various d-block metals used as oxidizing agents such as manganese, chromium, osmium, ruthenium, and silver.
2) Manganese in the form of MnO2 and KMnO4 is discussed as a selective oxidizing agent that can convert alcohols, alkenes, and other functional groups to carbonyl compounds under different conditions.
3) Chromium compounds including CrO3, Jones reagent, and chromium chloride are reviewed as oxidizing agents that can convert alcohols to carbonyls with varying selectivity depending on solvents and ligands.
Salt hydrolysis can produce acidic, basic, or neutral solutions depending on the salt. Salts are classified based on whether they contain strong acids/bases or weak acids/bases. Salts of strong acids and bases do not undergo hydrolysis and produce neutral solutions. Salts of weak acids and strong bases produce basic solutions, while salts of strong acids and weak bases produce acidic solutions. Salts of weak acids and bases may produce neutral, acidic, or basic solutions. Solubility products define the solubility of sparingly soluble salts in solution. The common ion effect suppresses the dissociation of weak electrolytes in the presence of strong electrolytes with a common ion. Solubility products and common ion effects can be applied
This document provides an overview of redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions, including definitions of key terms like oxidation, reduction, oxidizing agents, reducing agents, and disproportionation reactions. It discusses identifying oxidation and reduction based on changes in oxygen, hydrogen, or electron content. Methods for determining oxidation states and balancing redox reactions using the half-reaction method are also described. Real-world examples of redox processes like corrosion and the blue bottle experiment are mentioned.
The document discusses provisions for bad debts and doubtful debts. It provides examples of accounting entries for bad debts, provisions for bad debts, increasing or decreasing provisions based on changes in debtors balances. It also discusses provisions for discounts on debtors to account for potential discounts customers may receive upon payment. Key points covered include debiting bad debts and provisions to the profit and loss account, and extracting relevant balances for debtors, provisions for bad debts and discounts in the balance sheet.
The document provides information on accounting procedures for non-trading organizations, including receipts and payments accounts, income and expenditure accounts, balance sheets, and subscription adjustments. It includes examples of preparing these accounts from sample organizational financial data. Key points covered are:
1) Receipts and payments accounts summarize cash transactions, while income/expenditure accounts are like profit/loss statements.
2) Balance sheets for non-trading organizations list accumulated funds instead of capital.
3) Subscription accounts require adjustments to determine amounts transferred between accounts.
4) The examples demonstrate preparing the various accounts from raw financial information.
- The document discusses single entry bookkeeping, including definitions, advantages and disadvantages, and how to prepare statements of affairs and profit/loss.
- It provides examples of statements of affairs and profit/loss calculations for businesses keeping single entry records.
- Steps for preparing statements of affairs and converting single entry records to double entry bookkeeping are also outlined.
The manufacturing account shows a production cost of 9,300 consisting of direct material, direct labor, and overhead expenses. Trading account shows a cost of sales of 8,800, gross profit of 700, and sales of 9,500. The balance sheet lists assets of 6,000 including machinery and current assets, and capital of 6,000.
The journal proper is used to record transactions that cannot be entered in subsidiary books like sales returns, purchases returns, and cash books. It contains the date, account debited, account credited, amount, and narrative explaining the transaction. Examples of entries in the journal proper include purchases of fixed assets on credit, sales of fixed assets on credit, and opening entries to record assets, liabilities, and capital on the first day of business.
Depreciation is the reduction in the value of fixed assets over time due to wear and tear, age, or obsolescence. There are three main methods of calculating depreciation: straight-line, diminishing balance, and revaluation. Straight-line depreciation allocates an equal amount of depreciation expense each year, diminishing balance allocates higher depreciation amounts in early years that decrease over time, and revaluation depreciates assets based on annual reappraisals of their value. Proper recording of depreciation expense is important for financial reporting and calculating net income.
This document discusses different types of errors that may occur in bookkeeping and how to correct them. It describes errors that do not affect the trial balance, such as errors of omission, commission, principle, original entry, compensating errors, and complete reversal of entry. It also discusses errors that do affect the trial balance, which are revealed by a disagreement in the trial balance totals. A suspense account is used to temporarily record differences until the errors are located and corrected through journal entries. Examples are provided of each type of error and how to make the correcting journal entries.
- The document discusses control accounts used by large businesses to manage transactions between the firm and its customers (sales ledger) and suppliers (purchases ledger).
- Control accounts act as a summary of amounts owed to and by the firm. They are constructed by recording transactions such as sales, purchases, cash receipts/payments, returns, and discounts in a ledger account.
- Examples are provided of constructing sales and purchases ledger control accounts from sample transaction data. Exercises are also given for learners to practice preparing control accounts.
This document discusses accounting adjustments made at the end of a trading period. Specifically, it addresses adjusting accounts for expenses due but not paid (accrued expenses), prepaid expenses, income earned but not received (outstanding receipts), and income received in advance (prepaid income). Examples are provided for each type of adjustment, showing how to record the adjustments in the relevant expense or income accounts, profit and loss account, and balance sheet. The purpose is to accurately capture all revenues and expenses in the appropriate accounting period in order to determine the true profit or loss for the period.
Life skills like leadership, teamwork, positive relationships, self-worth and confidence are important for surviving in a competitive world undergoing rapid change. Good leadership involves vision, role modeling, effective communication, and motivating followers. Teamwork allows groups to achieve more and improves cooperation. Positive relationships are important for cooperation, peace, and community development. Self-worth and confidence empower individuals, stimulate creativity and accountability, and help people avoid risky behaviors. Developing these key life skills is essential for individuals and societies to adapt and thrive.
This document discusses poverty in Tanzania. It defines poverty and identifies two types: absolute and relative. It then outlines several indicators of poverty including low per capita income, low technology use, and high mortality rates. Several causes of poverty in Tanzania are explained such as climate change, low technology application, diseases, and colonial legacy. The effects of poverty include inability to meet basic needs, high dependency on donors, and increased illiteracy and crime. The document also examines strategies that Tanzania has used to alleviate poverty, such as Ujamaa villages and eliminating school fees, and discusses their effectiveness and challenges.
This document defines key concepts related to economic and social development. It discusses two types of development - economic development shown through improvements in agriculture, industry, trade, and material production, and social development shown through improvements in education, health, transportation, and other social services. Development can be measured at the individual level, looking at factors like education and income, and at the national level, looking at indicators such as per capita income, life expectancy, and literacy rates. Financial institutions like banks and non-banks play an important role in economic development by mobilizing savings and providing loans, investments, and employment opportunities. Both government and private sectors contribute to development through policies, trade, infrastructure, and production of goods and services.
Transport involves the movement of people, goods, and services from one place to another. There are several elements of transport including the way or path taken, the unit of carriage used, the method of propulsion, and terminals for loading and unloading. Transport is important as it promotes trade, develops regions, provides employment, creates utility of goods and services, provides variety, links producers and consumers, generates revenue, moves workers, and eliminates scarcity. However, the transport industry in Tanzania faces problems such as weather effects, hilly terrain, expensive bridge construction, traffic jams, and highway robbers. Efforts have been made to address these problems through liberalization of trade, construction of all-weather roads, and
This document discusses various topics related to money and banking, including:
- The evolution of money from barter trade to commodity money to coins and notes.
- The functions of money as a medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value.
- Banking services like loans, overdrafts, drafts, and different types of cheques.
- Qualities of good money and the demand for money for transaction, precautionary, and speculative motives.
- Differences between money and capital, and forms of money like coins, banknotes, and deposits.
This document provides an overview of marketing concepts including definitions of marketing, the marketing mix, types of markets, and market structures. It defines marketing as identifying and satisfying consumer demand through a system of activities to plan, price, promote, and distribute goods and services. The marketing mix consists of the 4Ps - product, price, promotion, and place. Markets are classified by type of goods (commodity, input, financial) and structure (perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, oligopoly). Market structures differ based on the number of sellers, product differentiation, and barriers to entry.
International trade involves the importing and exporting of goods and services between countries. There are several reasons for international trade, including allowing countries to obtain goods they cannot produce themselves and sell surplus goods. Trade can occur between two countries (bilateral) or multiple countries (multilateral). The main advantages of international trade are that it enables countries to access a greater variety of goods and promotes specialization. Some disadvantages include over-reliance on one export good and the potential for imported goods to have harmful effects. Key terms involved in international trade include imports, exports, balance of trade, balance of payments, and various shipping terms that determine responsibilities for costs.
Communication involves conveying information from one person to another. There are three main methods of communication: writing and reading, talking and listening, and using signs. Factors like urgency, distance, need for details, confidentiality, need for reference, and costs determine the best communication method. Recent developments in Tanzania include the introduction of cellular phones, public pay phones, privatization of telecommunications, improved mail delivery services, internet access, and electronic mail.
Advertising is used to inform customers about new and existing products or services. It provides information on price, quality, name, what is offered, and where to obtain the product. The main goals of advertising are to increase sales, introduce new products, promote branded goods, improve company image, gain more retail outlets, and outcompete rivals. Common forms of advertising media include television, radio, newspapers, posters, cinema, neon signs, direct mail, and trade fairs. Choosing an advertising medium depends on factors like cost, target audience, geographical coverage, and number of people reached.
This document provides information about web development and creating webpages. It discusses using software like HTML, FrontPage, and text editors to design pages with headers, navigation bars, and common layouts. The document explains how to preview pages, publish them to a server so others can access the site, and the difference between a single webpage and an entire website. Key topics covered include HTML tags, page structure, outlining a site map, and hosting a site on an internal or external server.
Mpact of information and communication technology (ict) on the societyKAZEMBETVOnline
ICT has had a significant impact on society. It has transformed education, industry, banking/business, communication, entertainment and more. However, it has also introduced some disadvantages like unemployment, privacy issues, lack of job security, and health risks. To address security issues, techniques like backups, encryption, access controls, passwords, firewalls and intrusion detection are used. Overall, ICT has changed nearly every aspect of modern life while also presenting new challenges around its use.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
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তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
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How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
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Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UP
Non metals and their compounds
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NON METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
Non-metals these are elements which react with the electrons by gaining to form negatively
charged ions
Where e = electron.
Example
There are only 17 non-metals (excluded H) arranged at right in the periodic table. They are
electronegative elements with high electronegativity and ionization energy. They have a
tendency to accept electron and form anions.
Characteristics of non-metals
1. They are oxidizing agents. This is because they are electron acceptor or they gain
electrons. The substance which gains electrons is said to be oxidizing agent.
2. They have low melting point and boiling point.
3. They have low density.
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4. They gain electrons during chemical reactions.
5. They have low physical strength.
6. Their oxides are acidic in nature.
Chemical Properties of non-metals
1. Non-metals react with oxygen to form non-metallic oxides, which are acidic in nature.
Hence non-metallic oxides form an acidic solution when dissolved in water and turn
litmus solution red. For example, carbon is oxidized to form carbon dioxide, which is
acidic in nature.
Non metal Its oxide
Chlorine –Cl HCl or HOCl
Carbon- C CO2, CO
Sulphur – S SO2, SO3
Nitrogen – N NO2, N2O4
Most of non-metal oxides form gas with acidic, the neutral or basic
Common properties of gases
GASES SMELL NATURE SOLUBILITY COLOUR
Ammonia NH3 Urine smell
Basic or
alkaline
Soluble Colorless
Carbon dioxide CO2 Odorless Acidic Soluble Colorless
Carbon monoxide CO Odorless Neutral Insoluble Colorless
Sulphur dioxide SO2
Irritating chocking
smell
Acidic Soluble Colorless
Chlorine Cl2
Irritating chocking
smell
Acidic Soluble Greenish yellow
Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Rotten eggs or
cabbage
Acidic Soluble colorless
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Irritating chocking Acidic Soluble Reddish brown
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smell yellow
Nitrogen monoxide NO Odorless neutral Insoluble Colorless
Hydrogen chloride HCl
Irritating chocking
smell
acidic Soluble Colorless
2. Non-metals are good oxidizing agents and are oxidized in almost all of their reactions. Like
aluminum is oxidized with bromine to form aluminum bromide.
3. Non-metals have a tendency to oxidize metals.
4. They can easily oxidize those compounds with which they react.
5. Less electronegative non-metals like carbon & hydrogen can act as a reducing agent for some
compounds like ferric oxide and copper (II) oxide.
6. Generally, no reaction takes place between non-metals and acids. But non-metals react with
base’s to form salts. For example, chlorine reacts with calcium hydroxide to form bleaching
powder.
OXIDIZING PROPERTY OF NON METAL
An oxidizing agent is a substance which accepts electrons; a reducing agent is a substance which
donates electrons. Oxidizing and reducing agents can be identified in redox reactions. The
elements with low electronegativity (metals) tend to form ions by losing electrons (oxidation)
and so can act as reducing agents; the elements with high electronegativity (non-metals) tend to
form ions by gaining electrons (reduction) and so can act as oxidizing agents. The strongest
reducing agents are found in Group 1 whilst the strongest oxidizing agents come from Group 7.
The electrochemical series indicates the effectiveness of oxidizing and reducing agents.
One of the main properties of non metal is to gain electron. None metal have 4 to 6 electron in
outer most shell.
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example
Nitrogen:2:5
Oxygen :2:6
Chroline:2:8:7
To become stable the outer most shell must be filled. Hence it is for non metal to gain an electron
to become stable
example
Nitrogen gain 3 electron = 2:8
Oxygen gain 2 electron = 2:8
Chlorine gain 1 electron = 2:8:8
Any chemical substance gain electron is oxidizing agent.Alsoall non metal is OXIDIZING
AGENT
The number of electron gained per atom signifies a valency. A Cl gain 1 and oxygen gain 2
hence valency of Cl is 1 and for oxygen is 2.
1. OXIDIZING POWER OF HALOGENS
These are elements found in the group VII of the periodic table and are salt producers.
Oxidizing power of halogens decrease as one move down the group, this is because of tendency
of electronegativity decrease.
Examples of halogens are; chlorine, bromine, fluorine and Iodine
All halogens name end with suffix -ine
Properties of halogens
1. Are salt producers.
2. Are most electronegative elements. With fluorine being the most electronegative and
Iodine the least in the group. The electronegativity decreases downwards the group.
3. Some of them are gases, solids and others liquids at room temperature.
Halogen state at room temperature
Fluorine Gas
Chlorine Gas
Bromine Liquid
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Iodine Solid
4. They are colored.
Halogen Color
Chlorine Greenish-yellow
Fluorine Purple
Bromine Brown-reddish.
Iodide Brown
5. They are strong oxidizing strong oxidizing agents i.e. they gain or accept electrons.
DISPLACEMENT REACTION INVOLVING HALOGENS
In displacement reaction one element take part of another in a compound. A more reactive non
metal displace a less reactive non metal from a solution of one of its salt.
In group VII are more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halogen from another halide
salt.
For example;Chlorine displace bromine or iodine
Chlorine
Chlorine is the greenish yellow gas which turns dump blue litmus red and bleaches it. Chlorine is
a chemical element with symbol Cl and atomic number 17. Chlorine is in the halogen group (17)
and is the second lightest halogen following fluorine. The element is a yellow-green gas under
standard conditions, where it forms diatomic molecules. Chlorine has the highest electron
affinity and the fourth highest electronegativity of all the reactive elements. For this reason,
chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent. Free chlorine is rare on Earth, and is usually a result of
direct or indirect oxidation by oxygen.
The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride (common salt), has been known since
ancient times. Around 1630 chlorine gas was first synthesized in a chemical reaction, but not
recognized as a fundamentally important substance.
Preparation of chlorine from potassium permanganate KMnO4 and hydrochloric acid
When potassium permanganate reacted with concentrated HCl, chlorine gas is formed, which is
collected by the downward displacement.
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Consider the diagram below.
KMnO4(aq) + HCl(aq) → 2KCl + 2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O(l) +5Cl2(g)
Preparation of the chlorine gas, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon monoxide in the fume
chamber/ cupboard
Normally these gases are prepared in the fume chamber for the following reasons.
Because some of them are toxic and poisonous this can cause death to occur. So when the gases
are prepared into the laboratory; windows and doors should be left open to allow good
ventilation of the air in the laboratory, when the poisonous/toxic gases are produced, they can
escape freely from the laboratory to the atmosphere to allow the leaked gaseous molecules to
accumulate in the laboratory.
The Test for Chlorine Gas, Cl2 (g)
1.Chlorine gas is green-yellow in color.
2.Chlorine gas has a pungent choking smell.
3.Chlorine gas turns moist litmus paper from blue to red and moist universal indicator paper
to red - it is acidic. After turning red both papers are then bleached white.
4.Chlorine gas will put out a lit splint.
Specific Test for Chlorine Gas
Chlorine is the only gas that has a bleaching affect
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Properties of chlorine
1. It is a greenish-yellow gas.
2. It has an irritating shocking smell
3. It is soluble in water.
4. It is slight denser than air.
5. It turns blue litmus red then bleach.
Chlorine gas is soluble in water.
When chlorine gas is dissolved in water, it dissolves to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
HOCl – hypochlorous acid
HCl – hydrochloric acid
Where HCl can kill bacteria and HOCl can bleach or decolorize.
The acid decomposes to form oxygen and hydrochloric acid.
Chlorine gas is the bleaching agent.
Bleaching agent- is the substance which can decolorize or bleach or remove the original color of
another substance, E.g.
Blue into colorless
Red into colorless
Yellow to colorless
How chlorine bleaches colored matter such as water, clothes, litmus.
E.g. when the chlorine gas is dissolved in water it forms two acids Hypochlorous acid and
hydrochloric acid. hypochlorous acid is unstable so it decompose slowly to form hydrochloric
acid and oxygen , the formed oxygen combines with the colored matter to such that they undergo
oxidation then bleaching occur such that the substance becomes colorless.
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Chlorine gas or compounds added to the swimming pool and drinking water.
This is because chlorine gas dissolves in the swimming pool or drinking water to form HCl
which kills bacteria and pathogens and at the same time decolorizes water thus makes water to
become safe for using for human beings.
The addition of chlorine in water is called chlorination of water. The aim is to kill bacteria and
decolorize water.
Water can be clean but not safe for drinking.
Because it may contain bacteria and microorganisms which cause diseases and can’t be seen by
our naked eyes and so water should be boiled or chlorinated.
Chemical properties of chlorine gas
Chlorine shows the following chemical properties.
1. Reaction with metal.
2. Reaction with water.
3. Reaction with alkali
E.g. NaOH, KOH etc
(a) Reaction with cold dilute alkali
KOCl is sodium hypochlorous.
(b)Reaction with hot concentrated alkali.
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NaClO3 is sodium chlorate.
4. Reaction with ammonia gas
DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS OF CHLORINE
Chlorine gas can show the displacement reaction such that those elements below, it would
displace.
The potassium iodide solution turns to brown due to the formation of iodine gas.
Effects of sunlight into chlorine water
Chlorine water is the unstable compound, when the heat or sunlight become into contact with
chlorine water (HOCl), the chlorine water decomposes then produces oxygen and hydrochloric
acid. Oxygen gas produced escape to atmosphere.
Consider the diagram below,
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Commercial uses of chlorine gas
1. It is used in the production of common salt, e.g. NaCl.
2. Used in the chlorination of water, this is the addition of chlorine in water so as to kill the
micro-organisms in water.
3. Used in the bleaching action. E.g. Bleaching of water, some of the clothes can be
bleached using chemical compounds made up of chlorine. Such as water guard.
4. Used to make compounds used in the preparation of oxygen gas. E.g. potassium
chlorate KCLO3 can be prepared from chlorine gas
5. (PVC)… materials used to make water pipes and plastics.
(PVC – polyvinyl chloride)
6. Used in disinfecting.
7. Used to bleach wood pulp in paper making.
8. Used to make chemical such as carbon tetrachloride used in dry cleaning.
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS
This is the compound hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula HCl. At room temperature, it
is a colorless gas, which forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric
humidity. Hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid are important in technology and industry.
Hydrochloric acid, the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride, is also commonly given the
formula HCl has the chemical formula HCl. At room temperature, it is a colorless gas, which
forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric humidity. Hydrogen
chloride gas and hydrochloric acid are important in technology and industry. Hydrochloric acid,
the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride, is also commonly given the formula HCl
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Preparation of hydrogen chloride gas
Where
H2SO4 (aq) is concentrated sulphuric acid.
NaCl is table salt.
NaHSO4 is sodium bisulphate.
HCl is hydrogen chloride.
A balanced chemical equation for the reaction
The gas cannot be collected over water because it is soluble in water. Thus, it is collected by
downward delivery method.
Test of hydrogen chloride gas
The gas forms white denser fumes of ammonium chloride with ammonium gas.
The physical properties of chlorine
1. It is soluble in water.
Where H3O+ Is oxonium ion
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2. It is colorless
3. It has a pungent smell.
4. It is denser than air.
5. It turns blue litmus to red since it is acidic.
Uses of hydrogen chloride gas
These are some of the uses for hydrogen chloride gas:
1. Most hydrogen chloride is used in the production of hydrochloric acid.
2. Hydrochlorination of rubber
3. Production of vinyl and alkyl chlorides
4. Chemical intermediate in other chemical production
5. Used in toilet bowl cleaner (The Works)
6. Use as babbitting flux
7. Treatment of cotton
o Delinting
o Separation from wool
8. Used in semiconductor industry (in pure grade)
o Etching semiconductor crystals
o Converting silicon to SiHCl3 for purification of silicon
Sulphur and sulphur extraction
1. Sulphur ( S= 2:8:6)
Sulphur is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is an abundant,
multivalentnon-metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules
with chemical formula S8. Sulphur element is a bright yellow crystalline solid when at room
temperature. Chemically, sulphur can react as either an oxidacing or a reducing agent. It oxidizes
most metals and several nonmetals, including carbon, which leads to its negative charge in most
organosulphur compounds, but it reduces several strong oxidants, such as oxygen and fluorine.
Sulphur is the solid yellow powdered non metal, yellowish in color. Sulphur is found within the
soil in the place called Sulphur bed.
The following countries lead in the extraction of sulphur; Mexico, Italy, Japan, France and USA.
Sulphur can be found combined with ores such as;
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1. Galena - Pbs
2. Iron Pyrite -FeS2
3. Zinc blend – ZnS
Some compounds of sulphur have unpleasant smell (odors). Sulphur compounds are responsible
for the smell such as that of onion, cabbage. The substance which causes tears during cutting of
onions, also the smell associated with rotten eggs is caused by the sulphur compounds.
Compounds of sulphur
They include;
1. Sulphur dioxide. (SO2)
2. Sulphuric acid.( H2SO4)
3. Sulphur trioxide. (SO3)
4. Hydrogen Sulphide( H2S)
Hydrogen sulphide gas – H2S have smell of the rotten eggs or cabbages. At the same time the gas
is poisonous and toxic.
Allotropy and allotropes of sulphur
Allotropy is the existence of an element in various different forms with different physical
properties but same chemical properties.
Allotropes are the different forms of the same element with the same chemical properties but
different physical properties e.g. rhombic, monoclinic, plastic, amorphous are all allotropes of
sulphur.
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Rhombic sulphur
1. Exists at 960C
2. Transparent white crystal
3. Stable at 960C
4. Has shape of octahedral
5. Prepared by heating sulphur
With methyl benzene (toluene)
Monoclinic sulphur
1. exists above 960C
2. yellow translucent
3. stable above 960C
4. has octahedral shape
5. prepared by heating sulphur
Relationship between rhombic and monoclinic sulphur (at transition temperature)
Transition temperature is the temperature which one allotrope can change to another allotrope
either by raising or lowering the temperature.
Rhombic and monoclinic sulphur are related to the temperature.
Preparation of plastic sulphur
Plastic sulphur- is the allotrope of sulphur prepared by heating sulphur then cooling it and
mixing it with cold water. Sulphur heated then melts and becomes molten after that mixed with
cold water, sulphur contact becomes very hard than any allotrope.
NB: plastic sulphur is not considered to be actual allotrope of sulphur because it is harder than
others.
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Amorphous sulphur prepared from chemical compound
Amorphous sulphur is the sulphur allotrope of sulphur produced from the chemical reaction of
compounds containing sulphur.
Commercial uses of plastic sulphur
Used in the synthesis of plastic materials such as jars, trough, plastic water pipes, basin, pen-
tubes containing ink.
EXTRACTION OF SULPHUR BY FRASCH PROCESS
The Frasch process is a method to extract sulphur from underground deposits. It is the only
economic method of recovering sulphur from elemental deposits.[1] Most of the world's sulphur
was obtained in this way until the late 20thcentury, when sulphur was recovered from petroleum
and gas sources (recovered sulphur) became more commonplace (see Claus process).
In the Frasch process, superheated water is pumped into the sulphur deposit; the sulphur melts
and is extracted. The Frasch process is able to produce high purity sulphur.
As from 2011, the only operating Frasch mines worldwide are in Poland and since 2010 in
Mexico. The last mine operating in the United States was closed in 2000. A Frasch mine in Iraq
was closed in 2003 due to the U.S. invasion of Iraq.
Process
In the Frasch process, three concentric tubes are introduced into the sulphur deposit. Superheated
water (165 °C, 2.5-3 MPa) is injected into the deposit via the outermost tube. Sulphur (melting
point 115 °C) melts and flows into the middle tube. Water pressure alone is unable to force the
sulphur into the surface due to the molten sulphur's greater density, so hot air is introduced via
the innermost tube to froth the sulphur, making it less dense, and pushing it to the surface.
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The sulfur obtained can be very pure (99.7 - 99.8%). In this form, it is light yellow in color. If
contaminated by organic compounds, it can be dark-colored; further purification is not economic,
and usually unnecessary. Using this method, the United States produced 3.89 million tonnes of
sulfur in 1989, and Mexico produced 1.02 million tonnes of sulfur in 1991.
The Frasch process can be used for deposits 50–800 meters deep. 3-38 cubic meters of
superheated water are required to produce every tonne of sulfur, and the associated energy cost is
significant. A working demonstration model of the Frasch process suitable for the classroom has
been described.
CHANGES WHICH OCCUR WHEN SULPHUR IS HEATED IN THE ABSENCE OF
AIR
When sulphur is heated in the absence of air, it undergoes changes as shown below.
(a) Sulphur at 1600C
Sulphur melts and becomes mobile yellow liquid.
(b) Sulphur at 2000C
Sulphur becomes dark, viscous and the mobility of sulphur increases more.
(c) Sulphur at 4440C
Sulphur boils to become into vapour or gaseous form.
1. Chemical properties of sulphur
Consider the reactions below.
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(Sulphur dioxide gas formed turning yellow potassium dichromate to green)
Commercial uses of sulphur
1. Manufacture of gun powder.
2. Manufacture of sulphuric acid through contact process.
3. Manufacture of matches.
4. Manufacture of plastic flower.
5. Manufacture of detergents e.g. powder soap, puff.
6. Manufacture of rubber through vulcanization.
Vulcanization is the hardening of rubber or is the process of heating sulphur with rubber to make
it hard.
7. Manufacture of drugs and skin ointment.
8. Production of bleaching compound
Sulphuric acid and contact process
The contact process is the process used to manufacture concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4)in
large scale in the industries.
E.g. concentrated sulphuric acid – is the acid containing few (small) amounts of water molecules.
Sulphuric acid, its industrial manufacture, uses and reactions
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Sulphuric acid is made in large quantity industrial because it has many important uses. The
production of sulphuric acid takes place in four stages.
Stage 1
Production of sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide gas can be produced by three methods.
1. Burning sulphur in air. The sulphur from Frasch process is burned in air. The equation is
2. Hydrogen sulphide from crude oil is burned in air. The equation is;
3. Sulphide ores are roasted in air to extract metals from the ores. Sulphur dioxide is also
produced, the equation is ;
Stage 2
The contact process
The sulphur dioxide gas produced in stage 1 is mixed with air. The air and sulphur dioxide pass
through a dust precipitate to remove any dust impurities and then the gases are passed through a
drier. It is essential that this purification process takes place because impure gases will poison the
vanadium (V) oxide catalyst.
The sulphur dioxide gas produced in stage one is mixed with air. Sulphur dioxide is converted
into sulphur trioxide in a converter. Like the Haber process, this is an equilibrium reaction and
goes in both directions. A yield of 95% is obtained by using the following conditions.
Catalyst vanadium (V) oxide(vanadium pentaoxide)
Temperature – 4500C
Pressure 1 atmosphere
This reaction is exothermic, which means that as sulphur trioxide is formed energy is released. If
the temperature rises above 4500C, the yield of sulphur trioxide decreases. The heat exchanger
maintains the temperature at 4500C.
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Stage 3
Production of oleum
If sulphur trioxide is dissolved in water, sulphuric acid is formed.
Oleum: H2S2O7 - yellow heavy chemical.
Definition; is the heavy yellow liquid formed when sulphur trioxide gas – SO3 reacts with acid
H2SO4
NOTE: Oleum have strong affinity to water, so absorbs a lot of water than concentrated
sulphuric acid formed.
Diagrammatic representation of the contact process
NB:
Do not add water to an acid but acid to water for safe dilution.
Because heat absorbed from the surrounding environment which cause water spray to boil which
scatter. Then it can burn at the same time with denser fumes that will be formed. Normally acids
have strong affinity to water. Reaction with water is endothermic.
Reactions of dilute sulphuric acid
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Reaction of sulphuric acid with marblechips - CaCO3 (egg shell)
Insoluble calcium sulphate formed, this cover acid to the top hence prevent further (more)
reaction to occur or continue, then the reaction stops. This is why we can’t prepare CO2 by
reacting marble chips and acid.
Commercial uses of sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
1. Used to make detergents for washing.
2. Used to make paints for house painting.
3. Used to make dyes for making clothes
4. Used in the synthesis of solvents. E.g. thinner for diluting paints.
5. Used in pickling – the removal of the oxide layer on the metal surface e.g. before
galvanization.
6. Used in the lead accumulator battery as the electrolyte.
7. Used to manufacture fertilizers e.g. SA ( ammonium sulphate)
8. Used to make plastic materials.
NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Nitrogen, symbol N, is the chemical element of atomic number seven and electronic
configuration (2:5). At room temperature, it is a gas of diatomic molecules and is colorless and
odorless. Nitrogen is a common element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total
abundance in our galaxy and the Solar System. On Earth, the element is primarily found as the
gas molecule; it forms about 78% of Earth's atmosphere. The element nitrogen was discovered as
a separable component of air, by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford, in 1772.
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Nitrogen gas as the diluents gas
Nitrogen gas is said to be the diluents gas. This is because it reacts with oxygen gas supporting
combustion, the reaction between oxygen and nitrogen help to reduce the rate of combustion,
rusting. This shows that if nitrogen in the atmosphere was absent, then rusting and combustion
could occur faster on the Earth’s surface.
Inert/ unreactive noble property of nitrogen
Nitrogen gas – N2 is unreactive gas and can resemble or be similar to noble gas due to the truth
that covalent bond in nitrogen is long and strong to break down hence nitrogen becomes
unreactive gas. The bond is triple covalent bond. E.g. N2
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF NITROGEN
Apparatus – delivery tubes, furnace, beaker, trough, Bunsen burner, 2 wash bottles Chemicals –
Air, water, sodium hydroxide Procedure Either: Nitrogen is prepared from the air by removing
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Water is used to push air through sodium hydroxide solution (caustic
soda solution) which removes carbon dioxide.
The remaining gas is passed over heated copper turnings to remove Oxygen.
Nitrogen is collected over water as it is insoluble in water.
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PROPERTIES OF NITROGEN
Physical properties
(a) it is colorless gas without smell
(b) it is a reactive gas
(c) it does not burn / doesn’t support combustion
(d)it is neither acidic nor basic
(e)It is less denser than air
(d)It is insoluble in air
Chemical properties
Nitrogen is inert unlike Oxygen; it reacts under special conditions for example
1. It reacts with some metals at very high temperatures forming nitrides e.g. Calcium and
magnesium.
1. It reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia (Haber’s process)
Commercial uses of nitrogen
1. Used in the storage of petroleum to avoid the exploding of petrol.
2. Used in the preparation of ammonia gas.
Common drying agent in laboratory for gas
Concentration of sulphuric acid
Anhydrous calcium chloride.
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Ammonia gas
Ammonia, or azane, is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a
colorless gas with a characteristic of pungentsmell. Ammonia contributes significantly to the
nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers.
Ammonia in both directly or indirectly is also a building-block for the synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals and is used in many commercial cleaning products. Although in wide use,
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ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. The gas form white denser fumes with hydrogen
chloride gas.
PREPATION OF AMMONIA
Ammonia is prepared by heating a mixture of calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) → CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(L) + 2NH3(g)
The tube in which ammonia is generated is fixed in a slanting position to prevent the water
formed from running back and crack the whole tube. Concentrated sulphuric acid and anhydrous
calcium chloride are not used to dry ammonia because they react with it. The gas is passed
through fresh quicklime (solid calcium oxide lumps) to effectively dry it. Ammonia is collected
by upward delivery as it is lighter than air
Compounds of nitrogen
1. Nitric acid ( HNO3)
2. Nitrogen monoxide (NO)
3. Dinitrogen Monoxide (N2O)
4. Nitrogen dioxide.
Physical properties, chemical properties and uses of ammonia
Physical Properties of Ammonia
Ammonia is a colorless gas.
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It has a pungent odor with and an alkaline or soapy taste. When inhaled suddenly, it
brings tears into the eyes.
It is lighter than air and is therefore collected by the downward displacement of air.
It is highly soluble in water: One volume of water dissolves about 1300 volumes of
ammonia gas. It is due to its high solubility in water that the gas cannot be collected over
water.
It can be easily liquefied at room temperature by applying a pressure of about 8-10
atmosphere.
Liquid ammonia boils at 239.6 K (- 33.5°C) under one atmosphere pressure. It has a high
latent heat of vaporization (1370 J per gram) and is therefore used in refrigeration plants
of ice making machines.
Liquid ammonia freezes at 195.3 K (-77.8°C) to give a white crystalline solid.
Chemical properties of ammonia
They include;
1.The combustion of ammonia proceeds with difficulty but yields nitrogen gas and water.
4NH3 + 3O2 + heat → 2N2 + 6H2O
2. Ammonia readily dissolves in water with the liberation of heat.
NH3 + H2O ⇔ NH4
+ + OH−
3. Ammonia gets oxidized to nitrogen, when passed over heated metal oxides.
Uses of ammonia
In the manufacture of rayon and urea
In the manufacture of fertilizers such as urea diammonium phosphate, ammonium nitrate,
ammonium sulphate etc.
In ice plants, as a refrigerant
In furniture industry, as a cleansing agent for furniture and glass surfaces.
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In the manufacture of nitric acid by Ostwald's process.
In the manufacture of sodium carbonate by Solvay's process.
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE REDUCING PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA TO
COPPER OXIDE- CuO
Consider the diagram below.
Chemical equation for the reaction
Fountain experiment to demonstrate solubility of the gases e.g. NH3, HCl
Fountain experiment this is an experiment used to show the solubility of the gases.
The ammonia fountain is a type of chemical demonstration. The experiment consists of
introducing water through an inlet to a container filled with ammonia gas.Ammonia dissolves
into the water and the pressure in the container drops. As a result more water is forced into the
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container from another inlet creating a fountain effect. The demonstration introduces concepts
like solubility and the gas laws at entry level.
A different gas of comparable solubility in water, such as hydrogen chloride, can be used instead
of ammonia.
If the ammonia is replaced by a liquid vapor, such as water vapor, at a pressure higher than its
room-temperature vapor pressure, a similar effect is produced. In this case, the reduction in
pressure in the container is due to condensation of the vapor as the container cools to room
temperature
Nitric acid
Nitric acid(HNO3), also known as aqua Fortis and spirit of niter, is a highly corrosive strong
mineral acid. The pure compound is colorless, but older samples tend to acquire a yellow cast
due to decomposition into oxides of nitrogen and water. Most commercially available nitric acid
has a concentration of 68%. When the solution contains more than 86% HNO3, it is referred to
as fuming nitric acid. Depending on the amount of nitrogen dioxide present, fuming nitric acid is
further characterized as white fuming nitric acid or red fuming nitric acid, at concentrations
above 95%.
Nitric acid is the primary reagent used for nitration - the addition of a nitro group, typically to an
organic molecule. While some resulting nitro compounds are shock- and thermally-sensitive
explosives, a few are stable enough to be used in munitions and demolition, while others are still
more stable and used as pigments in inks and dyes. Nitric acid is also commonly used as a strong
oxidizing agent.
Preparation of Nitric Acid
Laboratory preparation
Nitric acid is usually prepared by heating potassium nitrate with concentrated sulphuric acid.
This heating is done in a glass retort and vapors of nitric acid are condensed in a receiver, which
is cooled by water. The reaction is:
Chemical
1. Potassium nitrate: 30 g
2. Sulfuric acid: 98% 35mL
Procedure
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1. Place 30 g potassium nitrate into a round-bottomed flask.
2. Pour 35 ml 98% sulfuric acid and place a stir bar into the flask.
3. Set up a simple distillation apparatus and start heating the round-bottomed flask with a hot
plate with stirring. Soak the collecting vessel in a cold-water bath
Consider the diagram below.
To ensure our yield of anhydrous nitric acid is higher, adding some excess sulfuric acid is very
helpful. It makes the final product less water and produces more nitric acid. So weadd equation 2
sulfuric acids into equation 1 potassium nitrate to produce anhydrous nitric acid.
Industrial Preparation
On a commercial scale, nitric acid is manufactured through the Ostwald's process - the process of
catalytic oxidation of ammonia.
Ostwald's process
The conversion of ammonia into nitric acid in this process is done through the following steps:
Step1
Oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide
Ammonia is oxidized by air in the presence of Pt catalyst at 800°C to give nitric oxide.
Step 2
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Oxidation of NO to NO2
The nitric oxide is oxidized by air at temperature below 100°C, to give nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Step 3
Formation of nitric acid
Nitrogen dioxide is then converted to nitric acid by absorbing NO2 in water, in the presence of
air.
Properties of nitric acid (HNO3)
1. It can attack the rubber materials.
2. It is unstable so can decompose at room temperature.
3. It is yellowish in color, due to the dissolved nitrogen dioxide, NO2 in the acid.
4. It is the strong oxidizing agent
5. It is a fuming acid.
Chemical properties of nitric acid
1. Reaction with non metals.
CO2 Gas turns lime water to milky
And extinguishes fire and a reddish brown gas is evolved.
2. Reaction with metal.
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3. Reactions with Basic Oxides
4. Reaction with Bases (Hydroxides)
5. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates
6. Reaction with Metals
Nitric acid usually does not behave as an acid, with metals to form the corresponding salt and
liberate hydrogen.
However, magnesium and manganese are the only two metals, which react with cold and very
dilute (1%) nitric acid to evolve hydrogen.
7. Reaction with Metallic Sulphites
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Uses of nitric acid
The important uses of nitric acid are as follows:
1) Nitric acid plays a significant role in the manufacture of various products such as:
Explosives like trinitrotoluene (T.N.T.) nitro glycerin, gun cotton, ammonia etc.
Fertilizers such as calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate etc.
Nitrate salts such as calcium nitrate, silver nitrate, ammonium nitrate.
Dyes, perfumes, drugs etc. from coal tar products.
Sulphuric acid by Lead Chamber process.
2) It is used in the purification of silver, gold, platinum etc.
3) Nitric acid is used in etching designs on copper, brass, bronze ware etc.
4) It is used to prepare "aqua regia" to dissolve the noble elements.
5) It is used as a laboratory reagent.
NITROGEN MONOXIDE (NO)
Nitric oxide, or nitrogen oxide, also known as nitrogen monoxide, is a molecule with chemical
formula NO. It is a free radical and is an important intermediate in the chemical industry. Nitric
oxide is a by-product of combustion of substances in the air, as in automobile engines, fossil fuel
power plants, and is produced naturally during the electrical discharges of lightning in
thunderstorms. This is the colorless gas which turns reddish-brown on the exposure to air. The
gas has strong affinity to oxygen, so can react with oxygen from the atmosphere then turn to
reddish brown.
Properties of nitrogen monoxide
1. It is colorless
2. It is neutral to litmus.
3. It is odorless.
4. It is insoluble in water.
5. It is denser than air.
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Preparation of nitrogen monoxide in laboratory
The gas can be prepared when nitric acid react with moderate reactive metal.
The delivery tube is passed over the water to remove dissolved impurities (nitrogen dioxide)
Consider the diagram below.
Chemical properties of nitrogen monoxide
They include;
The gas reacts with oxygen gas readily to form nitrogen dioxide gas.
Commercial uses of the nitrogen monoxide
1. Used to prepare nitrogen dioxide gas.
2. Used to prepare nitric acid in Haber process.
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen
oxides. NO2 is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid, millions of tons of which
are produced each year. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor and
is a prominent air pollutant. Nitrogen dioxide is a paramagnetic, bent molecule with C2 point
group symmetry.
Preparation of nitrogen dioxide gas
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The gas can be prepared by heating lead nitrate Pb (NO3)2
Properties of nitrogen dioxide gas
1. Soluble in water and form two acid nitrous acid- HNO2 and nitric acid.
2. Have irritating chocking smell.
3. Its acidic gas turns dump blue litmus red.
4. It is reddish brown yellow gas.
5. It is less dense than air.
Chemical properties of nitrogen dioxide
They include;
1. React with base
2. Action of heat.
On strong heating the gas nitrogen dioxide decompose to produce nitrogen monoxide and
oxygen.
Commercial uses of nitrogen dioxide
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1. Used in preparation of nitric acid
2. Used in manufacturing of the salt.
Differences between nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide Nitrogen monoxide
It is soluble in water It is insoluble in water
It is reddish brown yellow in color It is colorless
It has irritating chocking smell It has no pungent smell
It is acidic in nature It is neutral in nature
It change dump blue litmus to red It doesn’t change litmus.
Don’t burn air It burn in air