This document provides information about the boron family (Group 13) of the periodic table. It discusses the elements in Group 13 - boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl). It details their electronic configurations, occurrence in nature, extraction methods, and chemical and physical properties. In particular, it focuses on the extraction of aluminium via the Bayer process and discusses the uses of aluminium and its environmental impacts.
The elements in which the valence electron enters the s orbital are called s block elements.
The elements in which the valence electron enters the p orbital are called p block elements.
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS,Boron Family (Group 13 Elements )
Compounds of Boron,Orthoboric acid (H3BO3),Borax (sodium tetraborate) Na2B4O7. 10H2O,Diborane,Compounds of Aluminium,Aluminium Oxide or Alumina (Al2O3),
Aluminum Chloride AlCl3,Carbon Family (Group 14 Elements):
Compounds of Carbon,Carbon Monoxide,Carbon di-oxide,
Carbides, Nitrogen Family (Group 15 Elements),
Ammonia (NH3),Phosphorus,Phosphorous Halides,Oxides of Phosphorus,Oxy – Acids of Phosphorus,Oxygen Family (Group 16 Elements) , Allotropes of Sulphur,Halogen Family ( Group 17 Elements,Inter halogen compounds,
Hydrogen Halides,Pseudohalide ions and pseudohalogens,Some important stable compound of Xenon
S-Block Elements - Group I Metals (Alkali metals) and Group II Metals (Alkaline Earth Metals)
Physical and Chemical Properties # General characteristics # Distiguih between both groups of metals # Some Examples of both groups metals
The elements in which the valence electron enters the s orbital are called s block elements.
The elements in which the valence electron enters the p orbital are called p block elements.
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS,Boron Family (Group 13 Elements )
Compounds of Boron,Orthoboric acid (H3BO3),Borax (sodium tetraborate) Na2B4O7. 10H2O,Diborane,Compounds of Aluminium,Aluminium Oxide or Alumina (Al2O3),
Aluminum Chloride AlCl3,Carbon Family (Group 14 Elements):
Compounds of Carbon,Carbon Monoxide,Carbon di-oxide,
Carbides, Nitrogen Family (Group 15 Elements),
Ammonia (NH3),Phosphorus,Phosphorous Halides,Oxides of Phosphorus,Oxy – Acids of Phosphorus,Oxygen Family (Group 16 Elements) , Allotropes of Sulphur,Halogen Family ( Group 17 Elements,Inter halogen compounds,
Hydrogen Halides,Pseudohalide ions and pseudohalogens,Some important stable compound of Xenon
S-Block Elements - Group I Metals (Alkali metals) and Group II Metals (Alkaline Earth Metals)
Physical and Chemical Properties # General characteristics # Distiguih between both groups of metals # Some Examples of both groups metals
This is an effort to make ppt of p block elements , a topic in XII, chemistry(cbse) , whom as a tutor i have often felt students are horrified due to its large text size, long descriptipns, several information to be remembered and several reasonings to keep in mind.
Hope this ppt would solve thier problem of a thorough preparation of topic with all important aspects covered in the ppt.
Founder Dr Mona Srivastava
Masterchemclasses
This is a presentation file that will provide you notes, proper diagrams, short tips, mnemonics about the alkali metals.. This course is of High School of grades 11 and 12. I think it will help every type of student. Similarly, you can find some repeated and important questions.
Introductory PPT on Metal Carbonyls having its' classification,structure and applications.This is a basic level PPT specially prepared for UG/PG Chemistry students.
REDUCTION AND REDUCING AGENTS. in this presentation we explain the
Definition
Identification
Position in periodic table
Examples etc
of reduction and reducing agents.
This is an effort to make ppt of p block elements , a topic in XII, chemistry(cbse) , whom as a tutor i have often felt students are horrified due to its large text size, long descriptipns, several information to be remembered and several reasonings to keep in mind.
Hope this ppt would solve thier problem of a thorough preparation of topic with all important aspects covered in the ppt.
Founder Dr Mona Srivastava
Masterchemclasses
This is a presentation file that will provide you notes, proper diagrams, short tips, mnemonics about the alkali metals.. This course is of High School of grades 11 and 12. I think it will help every type of student. Similarly, you can find some repeated and important questions.
Introductory PPT on Metal Carbonyls having its' classification,structure and applications.This is a basic level PPT specially prepared for UG/PG Chemistry students.
REDUCTION AND REDUCING AGENTS. in this presentation we explain the
Definition
Identification
Position in periodic table
Examples etc
of reduction and reducing agents.
This is a summary of the topic "metals" in the GCE O levels subject: Chemistry. Students taking either the combined science (chemistry/physics) or pure chemistry will find this useful. These slides are prepared according to the learning outcomes required by the examinations board.
Introduction
Magnesium extraction
a. Pidgeon process
b. Magnotherm process
Extraction of metals from oxide members
c. Electrolytic process (Dow process )
Aluminum extinction
a. Baye’s process
b. Hall- heraoult process
c. Methods of titrating low grades ores
d. Newer process for Aluminum production
Tantalum extraction
General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements.pptxDamnScared
t is usually contaminated with earthly or undesired materials known as gangue. The extraction and isolation of metals from ores involves the following major steps: • Concentration of the ore, • Isolation of the metal from its concentrated ore, and • Purification of the metal.
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https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
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The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
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Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
2. 2
GROUP 13 ELEMENTS-THE BORON FAMILY
ELEMENT SYMBOL ELECTR. CONF.
Boron
Aluminium
Gallium
Indium
Thallium
B
Al
Ga
In
Tl
[He]2s2
2p1
[Ne]3s2
3p1
Ar]3d10
4s2
4p1
[Kr]4d10
5s2
5p1
[Xe]4f14
5d10
6s2
6p1
3. 3
INTRODUCTION
Boron is the only group 13 element that is a
non-metal.
The remaining members of this group are
fairly reactive metals, and are called p-block
elements.
Aluminium, Al, is the third most abundant
element in the Earth's crust
All elements show a stable oxidation state of
+3, except for thallium. 3
4. 4
The small sizes of the ions, their high charge and
large values for their sum of the 1st
ionization
energy suggest that the elements are largely
covalent.
Boron is always covalent and many simple
compounds like AlCl3 and GaCl3 are covalent when
anhydrous.
However, in solution, the large amount of
hydration energy evolved offsets the high I.E and
4
5. 5
Unlike the s-block elements, some of the elements
of this group display lower valency.
There is an increase in tendency to form
univalent compounds as you go down the group,
and univalent thallium compounds are the most
stable.
This monovalency is occurs because s-electrons
in the outer shell remaining paired, and therefore
not participating in bond formation……because
5
6. 6
This tendency occurs among heavy
elements in the p-block and is called the
INERT PAIR EFFECT.
Inert Pair Effect is the resistance or
reluctance of s-electrons to get unpaired, or
take part in covalent bonding.
It is only p orbital electrons, which are
involved in bond formation.
6
7. 7
Group 13 metals have silver luster.
Erratic variation in M.P is observed down the group.
B(2300 ºC), Al(660.4 ºC), Ga(29.78 ºC), In(152.6 ºC) and Tl(303 ºC)
• Low M.P of Ga is reflected in the unusual structure of
the metal, which contains Ga2.
• The general trend down Group from non-metallic to
metallic character.
– Boron has a covalent network structure.
– Other elements are more ionic and metallic in
character.
8. 8
– Aluminium is on the borderline between ionic and
covalent character in its compounds.
– The remainder of Group 13 elements are
generally considered to be metals, although some
compounds exhibit covalent characteristics.
Electropositive character /nature of the element in
this group increases from Boron to Aluminium and
then decreases from Aluminium to Thallium (why?)
8
9. 9
REASON
This increase of electropositivitity from Boron to Aluminium
is associated with increasing size.
However, B and Al follows immediately after s block
elements, while Ga, In and Tl follows after d block elements.
So the extra d-electrons in Ga, In and Tl do not shield the
nuclear very effectively, as a result their orbital electrons are
more tightly held and the metal are less electropositive.
Evidenced by the increase of IE between Al and Ga even
though the large atom would be expected to have a lower
value.
9
10. 10
OCCURRENCE AND EXTRACTION
Group 13 elements are not found free in nature, but are all present
in various minerals and ores.
Aluminiun is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust
making up 8% existing in igneous rocks.
– Feldspars -(KAlSi3O8, NaAlSi3O8and CaAl2Si2O8).
– Micas -given by general formula X2Y4-6Z8O20(OH, F)4 where X =
K, Na or Ca; Y = Al, Mg, Fe and Z = Si)
– Clays – occurs naturally, show plasticity through a variable range
of water content
e.g. Kaolinite, Al2Si2O5(OH) and Pyrophyllite, Al2Si4O10(OH)2 .
– Cryolite (Na AlF – sodium aluminium fluoride)
10
11. 11
– Spinel (MgAl2O4)
– Bauxite (Al2O3..H2O)
– Gemstone, which are impure form of the oxide
of Al2O3 containing small amount of transition
metals that give them colours. E.g.
Ruby: Al2O3 + traces of Cr3+
Blue Sapphire: Al2O3 + traces of Fe2+
, Fe3+
and Ti+4
White Sapphire: The germ from
aluminium itself
11
13. 13
EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
Chief ore : Bauxite (Al2O3..nH2O)
Impurities: Silica, Iron(III) Oxide,calcium Oxide And Titanium
Hydroxide, and other few oxides
Additive: cryolite (Na3AlF6).
-Bauxite is dissolved in molten cryolite, Na3AlF6 (Sodium
hexafluoroalumiminate) so as to lower its M.P
Method: Electrolytic reduction
-Since Aluminium is reactive it is not extracted by chemical reduction e.g. C
……..as bauxite forms carbide.
-Usually produced by the electrolysis of bauxite.
Electrolytic process: achieved by the Bayer – Hall Herout processes (…
major industrial process for production of Al)
15. 15
Step 1:Digestion
Ground metallurgical-grade bauxite is digested in caustic soda solution at
140 – 280°C in pressure tanks.
Red mud is filtered off:
Al2O3 . 3H2O + 2NaOH →Na2O.Al2O3 + 4H2O + red mud
bauxite caustic soda Sodium Aluminate filtered
NOTE: Except Alumina And Silica all other impurities (calcium oxide,
iron oxide, titanium oxide) DO NOT dissolve in the caustic soda liquor.
The aluminate solution is filtered leaving behind the
impurities.
Silica dissolved in the liquor is then precipitated from it by
slow heating. 15
16. 16
Step 2: Precipitation
Caustic soda is added to precipitate pure Al(OH)3
from Sodium Aluminate solution by seeding.
Na2O.Al2O3 + 3NaOH→2Al(OH)3.nH2O(s) +liquor
Seeding of aluminum hydroxide reverses the
reaction
16
17. 17
Step 3: Calcination
"Hydrate", is calcined to form alumina .
In the calcination process water is driven off to
form alumina, this takes place at 1050o
C:
2Al(OH)3.3H2O(s) →Al2O3 + nH2O
The calcination process must be carefully
controlled since it dictates the properties of the
final product.
A large amount of the alumina so produced is
17
18. 18
Step 4 : Smelting (Electrolytic Reduction)
Pure Al2O3 is dissolved in a molten Cryolite, Na3AlF6, in an
electrochemical cell.
Molten Cryolite lowers the M.P from above 2000°C to 950–
1000°C). to save energy operational cost.
At the cathode,
- Al2O3 is reduced to molten Al.
At the anode
-Oxygen from the alumina reacts with the C electrode to form
CO2(g).
NB:The overall cell reaction is written as:
18
2Al2O3(l) + 3C → 4Al (l) + 3CO2 (g)
21. 21
Uses Of Aluminum
Use Examples
Transport Superstructures of trains, ships and airplanes. Alloy
engines for cars.
Construction Window frames, doors roofing
Power
transmission
Overhead electricity cables, capacitor foil
Kitchen
utensils
Kettles, saucepans
Packaging Drink cans, foil wrapping
Chemical
industry
Al(OH)3 – flame retarder, paper making
Al2(SO4)3 – flocculant in sweage treatment and to
precipitate PO4
3-
Al2O3 – catalyst and catalytic support material, abrasive
22. 22
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Smelting processes of aluminum requires enormous
amount of electricity.
Also, the main process which is the electrolysis emits
carbon dioxide which is greenhouse gas.
Recycling aluminum is an important method of
saving energy and minimizing the environmental
damage.
Recycling aluminum requires only 5% of the energy
24. 24
Boron is found in ores widely distributed in
Earth's crust.
Chief ore: BORAX……..the hydrated borates,
Na2B4O7.10H2O and similarly for tri, tetra and
pentaborates of calcium and sodium.
Additive: Na or Mg to as reducing agents
…..reduces the oxides (B2O3)
OR using H2 in the presence of BCl3 and Tungsten
(W) filament
24
26. 26
GALLIUM, INDIUM AND THALLIUM
The elements Gallium, Indium and
Thallium are only found as miner
components of various minerals.
These elements are produced or extracted
by electrolytic reduction in aqueous
solution
They are relatively soft and reactive,
which readily dissolve in acids.
26
29. 29
The M.P of all the elements are high,
- but the melting point of boron is much
higher than that of beryllium in Group 2
- M.P of aluminium is similar to that of
magnesium in Group 2 (diagonal
relationship).
The densities of all the Group 13
elements are higher than those of Group
2 elements.
29
31. 31
The chemical properties of Group 13 elements reflect
the increasingly metallic character down the group.
-Here only boron and aluminium will be considered.
Boron is chemically unreactive except at high
temperatures.
Finely divided boron burns in air to form oxide and
nitride:
4B(s) + 3O2(air) ® 2B2O3 (Oxide)
2B(s) + N2(air) ® 2BN (Nitride).
Accordingly in halogen Boron form trihalides
2B(s) + 2X3 (g) ® 2BX3.
31
32. 32
GROUP 13 COMPOUNDS
Because of their electron-deficient nature,
M3+
compounds have a formally vacant npz
orbital and usually act as Lewis acids (electron
acceptors).
32
33. 33
OXIDES (M2O3) -SESQUIOXIDE
SESQUIOXIDE is an oxide containing three
atoms of oxygen with two atoms (or radicals)
of another element.
The M2O3 of all the elements can be made by
heating the elements in oxygen:
4M (s) + 3O2(g) → 2M2O3 (s)
But B2O3 is more usually made by33
35. 35
H3BO3 is a weak acid……due to its electron deficient
tendency.
The B(OH)3 accepts an OH-
ion from the self ionization of
water forming a complex ion.
B(OH)3 + 2H2O → [B(OH)4]-
+ H3O+
The hydroxide boric acid B(OH)3 is formed by the
hydrolysis of many boron compounds.
It has a layer structure made up of planar molecules linked
by hydrogen bonding (ref slide overleaf).
It is a Lewis acid that acts as a Brønsted acid . 35
36. 36
36
Oxides of oxidation state +3 of the Group 13 Elements
Oxide Property
B2O3 Weak acid
many metal oxides gives glasses
with B2O3 as in the borax bead test
Al2O3 and Ga2O3 Amphoteric
In2O and Tl2O3 Weak basic
Tl2O3 gives O2 and Tl2O on heating
to 100 °C
37. 37
HALIDES OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS
All elements form trihalides.
They are nonpolar with trigonal planar shape.
The halides of boron are BX3 are all volatile, highly
reactive, covalently bonded molecular compounds and
are gases
The Boron fluoride (BF3) form fluoroborates, WHILE
other Boron halides giving boric acids
BF3 + H2O → [BF3OH] H
BCl3 + H2O ¾→H3BO3 + 3HCl
37
38. 38
BX3 are Lewis acids and the order of
their Lewis acidity strength is:
BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3
In contrary to the order of
Electronegativity of the attached
halogens:
F > Cl > Br
Why???????
38
39. 39
BX3 are trigonal planar and monomeric (not
dimerized in the way the BH3 does.)
E.g. the structure of BBr3.
39
40. 40
BF3 is a useful organic catalyst for Friedel Craft
reaction such as:
Alkylations
Acylation
Estirification
Polymerization of olefines
REASON:
-Boron (an electron deficient atom) in BX3 has 6
electrons in its outer shell and can readily accept a
40
41. 41
The fluorides of: Al, Ga, In, and Tl are
ionic having high melting points.
The other halides of these metals are
covalent when anhydrous.
AlCl3 , AlBr3 and GaCl3 exist as dimers
thus attaining an octet of electrons 41
42. 42
Exist as dimeric molecules with
the formula M2X6 using two
halide atoms to bridge the
metals.
This dimeric formula is
retained when the halides
dissolves in non-polar solvent
(e.g.; Benzene).
But because of high heat of
hydration when halides
dissolves in water, the covalent
dimer is broken into [M.6H2O ]42
Figure. 1
43. 43
Aluminium chloride, AlCl3, is a volatile
solid which sublimes at 458K.
The vapour formed on sublimation
consists of an equilibrium mixture of
monomers (AlCl3) and dimers (Al2Cl6).
It is used to prepare the powerful and
versatile reducing agent lithium43
44. 44
AlCl3 + C2H5 – O – C2H5
Lewis Acid dimethyl ether ( Lewis base )
44
AlX3 (Aluminium halides) are very reactive lewis acids
– they accepts a pair of electrons forming an acid base
compound called adducts
45. 45
AlX3 is used as a catalyst in a number of
organic reactions.
E.G. When benzene is treated with acyl halide in
the presence of anhydrous Alcl3 as catalyst ¾®
aromatic ketone
45
46. 46
The B-X bond distances are shorter than might
be expected, and the B-X bond energies are
correspondingly higher.
E.g. B-F bond energy (646 KJmol-1
) is the highest
known for a single bond.
EXPLANATION:
This suggest that some π-bonding may be
existing between the unhybridized 2p orbital of
the boron and the filled np orbitals of the
halides.
46
47. 47
HYDROXIDES
Al(OH)3 is amphoteric and reacts with
acids in a manner as metal hydroxides do.
Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H3O+
→ [ Al( H2O )6]3+
(aq)
Al(OH)3 also reacts with a base in the
reaction represented as the formation of a
hydro-complex
Al(OH)3 (s) + OH-
→ [ Al( OH )4]-
(aq)47
48. 48
When Al(OH)3 dissolves in a base, hydroxyl ion
and water bonds to Al ion forming a complex ion
[ Al( H2O )2 (OH)4]-
.
The reaction is as follows
Al(OH)3(s) + OH-
(aq) + 2H2O(l) → [Al(H2O )2
(OH)4]-
Al(OH)3 is used in the purification of water
because it carries down any suspended material48
49. 49
HYDRIDES
Special compounds that start of predominantly
covalent and become more ionic as we go down the
group.
Most of the group 13 elements react directly with
hydrogen, and large number of interesting hydrides
are known.
Boron forms an extensive and interesting series of
hydrides, called BORANES.
The simplest of these is not BH3 as expected, but its
dimer B H .
49
50. 50
The 8 well characterized boranes which fall into two
series BnHn+4 and less stable series BnHn+6 are:
i. B2H6 Diborane
ii. B4H10 Tetraborane
iii.B5H9 Pentaborane (stable)
iv.B5H11 Pentaborane (unstable)
v. B6H110 Hexaborane
vi.B9H15 Nonaborane (enneaborane)
vii.B10H14 decaborane 50
51. 51
Cont…….
The borane molecule (BH3) may exists as a reaction
intermediate.
But no BH3 as it does not exist as separate molecules. Boranes
are highly unstable due to their extreme electron deficiency.
Their highly exothermic reaction with oxygen lead to their
consideration as rocket fuels by the space program
The B-atom in BH3 lacks the complete octet (i.e. it has only 6
electrons in the valence shell).
The simplest boron hydride that have been isolated is
51
52. 52
THE STRUCTURE OF B2H6 (DIBORANE) – MULTICENTRE
BONDS
The question of interest is what
holds the diborane together?
EXPLANATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF
B2H6 .
There are 12 valence electrons at for
chemical bonding (B has 3, and H has
1, so 2 × B + 6 × H = 12)
•Each terminal B-H bond has two
electron bond, and there are four of
then, thus accounting for a total of 8
52
53. 53
This leaves a total of four electrons to be
shared between the two bridging H
atoms and the two B-atoms.
For this reason, two B H B
bridging bonds are formed, each
consisting two electrons forming the so
called three centre – two electron bond
(3C, 2e).
Meaning that 3 atoms share 2 electrons
(This sometimes called banana bonds
because they non-linear but curved.
(Fig. below )
53
54. 54
54
Figure 4. The Structure of B2H6 (diborane) – multicentre bonds.
Contains a 3-centre-2-electron bond (called a banana bond)
55. 55
INDUSTRIAL INFORMATION / APPLICATION
Boron is used in:
flares to provide a highly visible green colour.
Boron filaments are now used extensively in the
aerospace industry as a lightweight yet strong
material.
Boric acic acid is used as a mild antiseptic.
Borax as a water softener in washing powders.
Borosilicate glass contains boron compounds. 55