This document provides information about alkali metals and describes the extraction and uses of sodium and sodium compounds. It discusses the periodic table classification of alkali metals. Key points include:
- Alkali metals are soft, silvery-white reactive metals found in Group 1 of the periodic table.
- Sodium is extracted commercially via the Downs process, which involves electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
- Sodium reacts violently with water and is used to produce sodium hydroxide and other sodium compounds.
- Sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate are manufactured via electrolysis or other chemical processes and have various industrial and household applications.
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on the Group Two Elements. Designed for the new Exam Series of June 2017, but relevant for all series and exam boards.
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on the Group Two Elements. Designed for the new Exam Series of June 2017, but relevant for all series and exam boards.
S-Block Elements - Group I Metals (Alkali metals) and Group II Metals (Alkaline Earth Metals)
Physical and Chemical Properties # General characteristics # Distiguih between both groups of metals # Some Examples of both groups metals
PPT on transition elements which includes properties, trends, oxidation states, color, and magnetic behavior and position of transition elements in the periodic table.
This is a presentation file that will provide you notes, proper diagrams, short tips, mnemonics about the alkali metals.. This course is of High School of grades 11 and 12. I think it will help every type of student. Similarly, you can find some repeated and important questions.
This is an effort to make ppt of p block elements , a topic in XII, chemistry(cbse) , whom as a tutor i have often felt students are horrified due to its large text size, long descriptipns, several information to be remembered and several reasonings to keep in mind.
Hope this ppt would solve thier problem of a thorough preparation of topic with all important aspects covered in the ppt.
Founder Dr Mona Srivastava
Masterchemclasses
S-Block Elements - Group I Metals (Alkali metals) and Group II Metals (Alkaline Earth Metals)
Physical and Chemical Properties # General characteristics # Distiguih between both groups of metals # Some Examples of both groups metals
PPT on transition elements which includes properties, trends, oxidation states, color, and magnetic behavior and position of transition elements in the periodic table.
This is a presentation file that will provide you notes, proper diagrams, short tips, mnemonics about the alkali metals.. This course is of High School of grades 11 and 12. I think it will help every type of student. Similarly, you can find some repeated and important questions.
This is an effort to make ppt of p block elements , a topic in XII, chemistry(cbse) , whom as a tutor i have often felt students are horrified due to its large text size, long descriptipns, several information to be remembered and several reasonings to keep in mind.
Hope this ppt would solve thier problem of a thorough preparation of topic with all important aspects covered in the ppt.
Founder Dr Mona Srivastava
Masterchemclasses
Manufacturing of chlorine using diaphragm cell, membrane cellrita martin
Chlorine is an important industrial chemical. Chlorine is manufactured by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution using a diaphragm cell and a membrane cell. Both cells rely on the same underlying chemistry, but differ in detail.
6 methods of preparation of caustic sodarita martin
Sodium hydroxide, also known as caustic soda or lye, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula NaOH. It is a white solid, and is a highly caustic metallic base and alkali salt. It is available in pellets, flakes, granules, and as prepared solutions at a number of different concentrations.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
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(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
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In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
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. Our search finds no candidates
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Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
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Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
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5. s-block elements
Group 1 (alkali) and Group 2 (alkaline earth)
which have ns1 and ns2 outermost electronic
configuration respectively
All reactive metals with low ionization energy
Lose outermost electron(s) readily to form 1+ ion
(alkali) or 2+ ion (alkaline earth)
Highly reactive hence never found pure in nature
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6. Alkali metals
Group 1 element with outermost electronic
configuration of ns1
Sodium and potassium are abundant
Lithium, rubidium and cesium are lower
abundance
Francium is highly radioactive:
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8. Electronic configuration
All alkali metals have 1 valence electron, so
ns1 outer most electronic configuration
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9. Atomic and ionic radii
Def: distance from the center of the nucleus to the
boundary of the surrounding shells of electrons
Alkali metals have largest sizes in a particular period
of the periodic table
The monovalent ions (M+) are smaller than the
parent atoms (M)
The atomic and ionic radii of alkali metals increases
on moving down the group ( Li to Ce)
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10. Ionization energy
Def: The amount of energy required to remove
loosely bound electron from isolated gaseous
atom
Alkali metals have low I.E (easy to remove
electron)
I.E decreases down the group : Since the
increasing size outweighs the increasing nuclear
charge
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11. Physical properties
Silvery white, soft and light metal
Low density and increases down the group
Low mp and bp indicating weak metallic bonding due to only 1
valence electron
They and their salt impart characteristic color in an oxidizing flame
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Metal Li Na K Rb Cs
Color Crimson Red Yellow Violet Violet Red Blue
nm 670.8 589.2 766.5 780.0 455.5
12. Extraction of sodium from NaCl :
Challenges / Overcome
Mp of NaCl is 801C. At this temperature, molten NaCl
and Na forms a metallic fog in the container which is
impossible to separate
To overcome this challenge, a mixture of NaCl and
CaCl2 is electrolyzed. The mp of the mixture is 600C ;
no metallic fog is formed at this temperature.
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13. Occurrence of sodium
Do not occur in free state
Occurs as compound
NaCl: Sodium chloride as rock salt and sea water
NaNO3: Sodium nitrate, Chile salt petre, Caliche
Na2B4O7.10H2O: Borax
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14. Extraction of sodium :
Downs process
On industrial scale, sodium metal is extracted
by “Down’s Process”
Down’s Process is based on the electrolysis of
fused NaCl
Na+ reduced to Na in cathode
Cl- oxidized to Cl2 in anode
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15. Construction of Down’s Cell
Down’s Cell is an iron vessel line with fire bricks and
containing the mixture of the salts (NaCl and CaCl2)
The graphite anode is at the centre which rises from
the bottom of the cell
The cylindrical iron cathode surrounds the anode
The cathode and anode are separated by iron wire
gauze which keeps the products (Na and Cl2)
separate from each other
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Fig: Down’s Cell
When an electric current is passed through the molten mixture
of NaCl and CaCl2, NaCl decomposes in to Na+ and Cl-
ion. Na+ ions migrate towards cathode while Cl- ions towards
the anode. The molten sodium collects in the cathode
compartment where it rises to the top and is tapped off by a
pipe. Chlorine is collected at the anode.
Steel
hood
Molten
Sodium
Chlorine
Carbon anode Iron gauze
Iron
cathode
Storage tank
for sodium
Fused NaCl
and CaCl2
17. Down’s Cell: Reaction
Fused NaCl contains sodium and chloride ions
At Cathode: Na+ ion migrated to cathode and reduces to Na
At Anode: Cl- ion migrates to anode and oxidizes to Cl2
Overall Reaction:
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2NaCl 2Na+ + 2Cl-
Na+ + e- Na
2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-
2NaCl 2Na + Cl2
18. Action of sodium with
Oxygen
Water
Acids
Nonmetals
Ammonia
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19. Na with O2
Sodium burns in air with golden yellow
flame producing the mixture of its normal
oxide and peroxide
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20. Na with H2O
Sodium reacts readily with water forming
sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The
reaction is highly exothermic so that
hydrogen at once catches fire
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22. Na with non-metals
Reacts with H2 to produce sodium hydride
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Reacts with Halogens to produce respective
halides
23. Na with ammonia
Dissolves in liquid ammonia producing the
deep blue coloration.
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The blue color of the solution is due to the
ammoniated electron which absorbs energy
in the visible region of light.
24. Uses of sodium
In sodium vapour lamp which gives yellow
light and in photoelectric cell
In nuclear reactor as a heat exchanger
In production of artificial rubber, dyes, drugs
and perfumes
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25. Sodium hydroxide
Common name: Caustic soda
Molecular formula : NaOH
1 mole of NaOH has 40 g NaOH
1 mole NaOH contain 23g Na, 16g oxygen, 1g hydrogen
1mole NaOH contain 1 mole Na atom, 1 mole oxygen atom,
and 1 mole hydrogen atom
1 mole NaOH contains 0.5 mole oxygen molecules and 0.5
moles hydrogen molecules
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26. NaOH: Manufacturing
Demand of NaOH is very high
Primarily manufactured by electrolysis of
NaCl solution
Mercury Cathode is used
Castner - Kellner’s process
Kellner-Solvay process
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27. 27
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Graphite
electrode
Eccentric
Wheel
Mercury
Graphite
electrode
Caustic soda solution
Iron cathode
Slate partitions brine
Cl2
H2 (-)
(+) (+)
Fig: Castner-Kellner cell for manufacturing of NaOH
Cl2
- - - - - - - -
+ + + + + + +
28. Castner - Kellner’s process
It consists mercury cathode cell which is a large rectangular
iron vessel divided into three compartments by a non-porous
slate partition. The partition do not touch the bottom of the
cell.
The two outer compartments contain the concentrated brine
solution with graphite anode. The central compartment
contains dilute sodium hydroxide solution with iron cathode.
The bottom of the cell contains the layer of mercury, which
serves as cathode in outer compartments and as anode in
central compartment. The mercury is allowed to move from
one compartment to another by means of an eccentric wheels.
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29. Castner - Kellner’s process
On passing electricity:
At outer compartments, sodium ions are discharged at
mercury cathode and form amalgam.
Thus formed amalgam passes into central compartment due
to rocking motion and reacts with water to produce NaOH
solution and H2 gas. From this reaction, Hg is regenerated .
Solid NaOH is obtained by evaporating the solution from
central compartment and then it is cast to sticks to get its
pellets
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30. Castner - Kellner’s process
Reaction (Side compartment)
At cathode
At anode
Reaction (Central compartment)
At anode
At cathode
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Na+ + e- + Hg NaHg
NaHg Na+ + Hg + e-
Na+ + e- Na
2Cl- Cl2(g) + 2e-
2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
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Fig: Kellner-Solvay cell for manufacturing of NaOH
Cl2
(+) Anode Brine in
Mercury in
Amalgam out
Spent
brine
(-) Cathode
Kellner-Solvay process
32. Kellner-Solvay process
Kellner-Solvay cell has replaced Castner-Kellner cell to some extent
This cell has single compartment without any partition.
The cell consist of a big rectangular from through, called
electrolyzer, at the basis of which there is a thin layer of mercury
flowing from one end to the other.
The layer of mercury acts as cathode.
A concentrated brine solution flows slowly through the cell in the
same direction as Hg flows and is maintained at a constant level.
The graphite anodes are suspended into the brine.
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33. Kellner-Solvay process
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On passing electricity:
Cl- oxidizes to Cl2 in an anode
Sodium ions are reduced at the mercury cathode and form
sodium amalgam
Sodium amalgam flows into iron tank called decomposer, where
NaHg is decomposed by calculated amount of water to produce
caustic soda and regenerating mercury.
Solid NaOH is obtained by evaporating the solution from
central compartment and then it is cast to sticks to get its pellets.
35. NaOH by Diaphragm Cell
Principle
Electrolysis of brine solution is carried out between graphite anode
and steel mesh cathode
Cell consist of two compartment separated by a permeable asbestos
diaphragm. Ions can pass through diaphragm but gas molecules
cannot.
Anodic compartment is supplied with brine solution and cathodic
compartment with water
During electrolysis, Cl2 is discharged from anode and H2 from
cathode
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36. NaOH by Diaphragm Cell
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Hydrogen
gas
Chlorine
gas
Graphite
anode
Steel
cathode
Brine containing
NaOH
Brine
Brine
Brine
Brine
Asbestos diaphragm
Fig: Manufacturing of NaOH by diaphragm cell
37. Reaction
At cathode
At anode
Na+ travel through the diaphragm and combine
with OH- to form NaOH
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2H2O + e- H2(g) + 2OH-
Na+ + OH- NaOH
2Cl- Cl2(g) + 2e-
NaOH by Diaphragm Cell
38. NaOH: Physical properties
White deliquescent solid
Soluble in water and alcohol
Solution is soapy to touch
Mp: 318C
Corrosive action on skin
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39. Action of NaOH with
Carbon monoxide
Precipitation reaction
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40. NaOH with CO
NaOH reacts with Carbon monoxide to
produce sodium formate.
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Reaction takes place on high pressure,
120-130°C and in presence of catalyst.
41. NaOH precipitation reaction
Certain metal hydroxide precipitate:
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In some cases, ppt dissolves in excess NaOH
FeCl3 + 3NaOH Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl
Brown ppt
ZnSO4 + 2NaOH Zn(OH)2 + Na2SO4
White ppt
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
Sodium zincate
Al(OH)3 + NaOH NaAlO2 + 2H2O
Sodium meta aluminate
42. NaOH uses
In refining petroleum products and vegetable
In manufacturing of soap, paper, cellulose, artificial
silk
For the extraction of sodium metal by Castner’s
process
For testing wool as NaOH dissolves pure wool
giving a gelatinous mass
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43. Sodium carbonate
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Common name: Washing soda (Na2CO3 .10 H2O)
1 mole of Na2CO3 has 106 g Na2CO3
1 mole Na2CO3 contain 46g Na, 12g carbon, 48g
oxygen
1mole Na2CO3 contain 2 mole Na atom, 1 mole
carbon atom and 3 mole oxygen atom
1 mole Na2CO3 contains 1.5 mole oxygen molecules
44. Na2CO3 Manufacturing
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Primarily manufactured by Solvay’s ammonia
process, which is also called ammonia soda
process
Raw materials:
Brine, NaCl
Lime Stone, CaCO3
Ammonia, NH3
45. Solvay Process: Principle
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Brine solution is saturated with ammonia and excess carbon
dioxide gas is passed through it
Sodium bicarbonate is produced
Sodium bicarbonate is removed by filtration and then ignited to
get sodium carbonate
Thus formed sodium carbonate solution is crystalline to get the
washing soda crystals
NH3 + H2O + CO2 NH4HCO3
NaCl + NH4HCO3 NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
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Fig: Solvay process for manufacturing of Na2CO3
NH3 + a little CO2
Brine
Filter
Filter
Water
Steam
NH4Cl + a little NH4HCO3
NaHCO3 (For ignition)
Ca(OH)2
Tower
CaCl2
CO2
Ammonia
Absorber
Ammonia
Recovery
tower
Lime
Klin
Carbonation
tower
Ammoniacal
brine
CaO
47. 1. Saturation of brine with
ammonia
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Brine is pumped into the ammonia absorber.
Ammonia mixed with a little carbondioxide from the
ammonia generating tower enters the ammonia absorbing
tower and saturates the in coming brine.
Impurities of calcium or magnesium salts in brine are
precipitated as hydroxides or carbonates.
NH3 + CO2 + H2O (NH4)2CO3
CaCl2 + (NH4)2CO3 CaCO3ppt + 2NH4Cl
NH3 + H2O NH4OH
MgSO4 + 2NH4OH Mg(OH)2ppt + (NH4)2SO4
48. 2. Carbonation
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The ammonical brine solution is filtered and allowed to
enter carbonating tower from its top
The down coming ammonical brine solution meets an
upward stream of CO2 gas coming from the lime klin.
Small crystals of sodium bicarbonate are formed.
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
NH4HCO3 + NaCl NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
NH3 + H2O + CO2 NH4HCO3
49. 3. Filtration
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The thick milky liquid from carbonating
tower is filtered by rotary vacuum filter
The solid sodium bicarbonate left on the filter
cloth is scrapped periodically
The filtrate and the mother liquor are
pumped to the top of the ammonia recovery
tower
50. 4. Recovery of ammonia
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The filtrate containing ammonium chloride with a little
ammonium bicarbonate flows down the ammonia
recovery tower while slaked lime is admitted into the
tower and steam is admitted from the bottom of tower.
Ammonium bicarbonate decomposes due to heat and
ammonium chloride combine with the lime.
NH4HCO3 NH3 + H2O + CO2
Ca(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
51. 5. Calcination
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Sodium bicarbonate obtained from filtration is
calcined to get sodium carbonate
Carbondioxide obtained from this reaction is reused in
carbonation tower.
Crystallization of sodium carbonate solution is carried
out to get sodium carbonate crystals.
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
52. Advantages of Solvay process
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The materials are cheap and the product
obtained is of high purity
53. Action of Na2CO3 with
Carbondioxide
Sulphur dioxide
Water
Precipitation reaction
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54. Na2CO3 with CO2
Sodium bicarbonate is formed when CO2 is
passed into aq. Na2CO3
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Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2NaHCO3
(aq)
55. Na2CO3 with SO2
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Sodium sulphite is formed when SO2 is
passed into aq. Na2CO3
Sodium bisulphite is formed when SO2 is
passed into Na2CO3
Na2CO3 + SO2 + H2O 2NaHSO3
(aq)
Na2CO3 + SO2 2Na2SO3 + CO2
56. Na2CO3 with H2O
It produces NaOH and H2CO3, the solution is
alkaline
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Hence, the aqueous Na2CO3 turns red litmus
to blue and phenolphthalein to pink
Na2CO3 + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2CO3
Strong base Weak acid
57. Na2CO3 precipitation reactions
It precipitate the carbonates of non-alkali
metals from their salt solution
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CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
ppt
BaCl2 + Na2CO3 BaCO3 + 2NaCl
ppt
2AgNO3 + Na2CO3 Ag2CO3 + 2NaNO3
Ppt
58. Uses Na2CO3
As washing soda for washing clothes
In softening of water
In manufacturing of glass, borax and caustic
soda
As a household cleansing agent
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59. Flow Chart
Shows steps as box in sequential order of the processes.
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