1) Noise exists in all communication systems and degrades signal quality. It is caused by random movement of electrons and can be internal or external.
2) Thermal noise, also known as Johnson noise, is generated by thermal agitation of electrons in conductors. It is proportional to temperature and bandwidth.
3) Noise figure and noise temperature are used to measure the degradation of signal to noise ratio caused by components in a communication system. Lower noise figure and temperature indicate less degradation.
Sampling is a Simple method to convert analog signal into discrete Signal by using any one of its three methods
if the sampling frequency is twice or greater than twice then sampled signal can be convert back into analog signal easily......
Hello everyone. This is a short presentation on path loss and shadowing. I have not covered all the topics but a brief idea is given on path loss and wireless channel propagation models.
Hope you find it useful.
Thanks
This presentation will explain about the need for modulation in communication system. We made this presentation as our group assignment in Analog and Digital Communication System course in MIIT.
RF Carrier oscillator
To generate the carrier signal.
Usually a crystal-controlled oscillator is used.
Buffer amplifier
Low gain, high input impedance linear amplifier.
To isolate the oscillator from the high power amplifiers.
Modulator : can use either emitter collector modulation
Intermediate and final power amplifiers (pull-push modulators)
Required with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in the AM envelope
Coupling network
Matches output impedance of the final amplifier to the transmission line/antenn
Applications are in low-power, low-capacity systems : wireless intercoms, remote control units, pagers and short-range walkie-talkie
Modulating signal is processed similarly as in low-level transmitter except for the addition of power amplifier
Power amplifier
To provide higher power modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation (carrier power is maximum at the high-level modulation point).
Same circuit as low-level transmitter for carrier oscillator, buffer and driver but with addition of power amplifier
Introduction to basics of wireless networks such as
• Radio waves & wireless signal encoding techniques
• Wireless networking issues & constraints
• Wireless internetworking devices
Base band transmission
*Wave form representation of binary digits
*PCM, DPCM, DM, ADM systems
*Detection of signals in Gaussian noise
*Matched filter - Application of matched filter
*Error probability performance of binary signaling
*Multilevel base band transmission
*Inter symbol interference
*Eye pattern
*Companding
*A law and μ law
*Correlation receiver
The Presentation is as per the syllabus of the subject ”Digital Communication” of B.E. VIth Semester of Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Maharashtra, India
Contents are
Digital Communication System
Line Coding
Scrambling
Sampling is a Simple method to convert analog signal into discrete Signal by using any one of its three methods
if the sampling frequency is twice or greater than twice then sampled signal can be convert back into analog signal easily......
Hello everyone. This is a short presentation on path loss and shadowing. I have not covered all the topics but a brief idea is given on path loss and wireless channel propagation models.
Hope you find it useful.
Thanks
This presentation will explain about the need for modulation in communication system. We made this presentation as our group assignment in Analog and Digital Communication System course in MIIT.
RF Carrier oscillator
To generate the carrier signal.
Usually a crystal-controlled oscillator is used.
Buffer amplifier
Low gain, high input impedance linear amplifier.
To isolate the oscillator from the high power amplifiers.
Modulator : can use either emitter collector modulation
Intermediate and final power amplifiers (pull-push modulators)
Required with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in the AM envelope
Coupling network
Matches output impedance of the final amplifier to the transmission line/antenn
Applications are in low-power, low-capacity systems : wireless intercoms, remote control units, pagers and short-range walkie-talkie
Modulating signal is processed similarly as in low-level transmitter except for the addition of power amplifier
Power amplifier
To provide higher power modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation (carrier power is maximum at the high-level modulation point).
Same circuit as low-level transmitter for carrier oscillator, buffer and driver but with addition of power amplifier
Introduction to basics of wireless networks such as
• Radio waves & wireless signal encoding techniques
• Wireless networking issues & constraints
• Wireless internetworking devices
Base band transmission
*Wave form representation of binary digits
*PCM, DPCM, DM, ADM systems
*Detection of signals in Gaussian noise
*Matched filter - Application of matched filter
*Error probability performance of binary signaling
*Multilevel base band transmission
*Inter symbol interference
*Eye pattern
*Companding
*A law and μ law
*Correlation receiver
The Presentation is as per the syllabus of the subject ”Digital Communication” of B.E. VIth Semester of Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Maharashtra, India
Contents are
Digital Communication System
Line Coding
Scrambling
Optical Fiber Communication Part 3 Optical Digital ReceiverMadhumita Tamhane
Current generated by photodetector is very weak and is adversely effected by random noises associated with photo detection process. When amplified, this signal further gets corrupted by amplifiers. Noise considerations are thus important in designing optical receivers.
Most meaningful criteria for measuring performance of a digital communication system is average error probability, and in analog system, it is peak signal to rms noise ratio. ...
This presentation covers types of noise in communication system, noise modelling, thermal noise, shot noise, experimental determination of noise figure, noise figure, friss formula with numerical.
Abstract: A communications system consisting of switching centers and their interconnecting media. (188). Part of
a communication system organized to temporarily associate functional units, transmission channels or
telecommunication circuits for the purpose of providing a desired telecommunication facility.
Note: Examples of NATO-owned switching system are IVSN and TARE. Switching centers receives the control
signals messages or conversation and forward to the required destination, after necessary modification (link
amplification) if necessary. A switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in
such a way as to sleep a communication path between any two distant points. Technically, the design for telephone
switching center or equipment requirements in a telecommunication system are determined of the traffic intensity
is defined as the product of the celling rate and the average holding time. This paper reveals about the information
about the switching system and the research about that. Advantages and disadvantages of the switching system
which we are using. A telephone network is composed of a variety of all processing equipment, interstate switching
links and inters office trunks because of the random nature of the call request, the design of equipment switching
links and trunks are quite different . Thus, the traffic ana Switching is an engineering approach on computer networking. Telecommunication networks carry information signals
among entities which are geographically far apart. The entities are involved in the process of information transfer which
may be in the form of a telephone conversation (telephony) or a file transfer between two computers or message between
two terminals etc. Today it is almost turism to state that telecommunication system are the symbol of our informative
age. With the rapidly growing traffic and untargeted growth of cyberspace, telecommunication becomes a fabric of our
life. The future challenges are enormous as we anticipate rapid growth items of new services and no. of users. What
comes with the challenges is a genuine need for more advance methodology supporting analysis and design of
telecommunication architectures.
Switching systems are about how do we move traffic from one part of the network to another and to connect end system
to switches to each other and data arriving to an input port of a switch have to be moved to one or more of output ports.
The communication switching system enables the universal connectivity. The universal connectivity is realized when any
entity is one part of the world can communicate with any other entity is another part of the world. The telecommunication
links and switching were mainly designed for voice communication. With the appropriate attachments and equipments
they can be used to transmit data. Samue
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Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
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Cyber risk predictions
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The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
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2. 2
IntroductionIntroduction
“How do you want to send data/information to
someone who is far from you?”
“If the information that you want to send is your
voice, how to make sure that what your words
are understood by your friend?”
“What is the source and technology available
surround you that can help?”
3. 3
NoiseNoise
• Practically, we cannot avoid the existence of
unwanted signal together with the modulated signal
transmitted by the transmitter.
• This unwanted signal is called noise.
• Noise is a random signal that exists in a
communication system.
• Random signal cannot be represented with a simple
equation.
• The existence of noise will degrade the level of
quality of the received signal at the receiver.
4. 4
Types of noiseTypes of noise
Noise
Internal Noise External Noise
Due to random movement of
electrons in electronic circuit
• Thermal noise/Johnson noise
• Shot noise
Man-made noise and
natural resources
• Lightning
• Solar noise
• Ignition
• Crosstalk
any phenomenon by which a signal transmitted on one frequency
creates an undesired effect on another frequency.
an undesired coupling
(energy transfer) from
one circuit or medium to another
5. 5
Noise EffectNoise Effect
• Degrade system performance for both analog and
digital systems.
• The receiver cannot understand the sender.
• The receiver cannot function as it should be.
• Reduce the efficiency of communication system.
6. 6
Thermal NoiseThermal Noise
• Johnson–Nyquist noise (thermal noise, Johnson noise, or
Nyquist noise) is the Electronic noise - generated by the
thermal agitation of the charge carriers (the electrons) inside
an electrical conductor in equilibrium, which happens
regardless of any applied voltage.
• Movement of the electrons will forms kinetic energy in the conductor
related to the temperature of the conductor.
• When the temperature increases, the movement of free electrons will
increase and the current flows through the conductor.
• Current flows due to the free electrons will create noise voltage, n(t).
• Noise voltage, n(t) is influenced by the temperature and therefore it is
called thermal noise.
• Also known as Johnson noise or white noise.
7. 7
kTBP
TBP
n
n
=
∝
Watt
where
Pn = noise power (Watt)
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23
J/K)
T = Temperature (K)
B = BW spectrum system (Hz)
In 1928, J. B. Johnson have proven that noise power generated is
proportional to the temperature and the BW.
Noise power can be modeled using voltage equivalent circuit (Thevenin
equivalent circuit) or current equivalent circuit (Norton equivalent circuit)
This type of noise was first measured by John B. Johnson at Bell Labs in 1928. He described his
findings to Harry Nyquist, also at Bell Labs, who was able to explain the results.
8. 8
• Noise source will be connected to a system with the input
resistance RL.
• Therefore, total noise power is Pn.
• With the concept of maximum power transfer ie when Rn = RL , all
the power will be transferred to the load.
• Also called as impedance matching.
Rn, Noise
source
Vn, Noise
voltage source
Rn, noise
free
=
(b) Thevenin equivalent circuit(a) Noise source circuit
It can be modeled by a voltage source representing the noise of the non-ideal
resistor in series with an ideal noise free resistor.
revise on circuit theory
9. 9
RL, system input
resistance
Vn, Noise
voltage source
Rn, Noise
free
(c) Thevenin equivalent circuit with the load
VL
RRR Ln ==
R
V
R
V
R
V
P n
n
L
L
4
2 2
2
2
=
==
kTBPP Ln ==2
n
n
Ln
L
L
V
V
RR
R
V
=
+
=
Note: Vn = Vrms
kTBRV
kTBRV
kTB
R
V
n
n
n
4
4
4
2
2
=
=
=
Given
Voltage across RL :
=>
and
=>
voltage divider rule
10. 10
Example 1
One operational amplifier with a frequency range of (18-20) MHz has
input resistance 10 kΩ. Calculate noise voltage at the input if the
amplifier operate at ambient temperature of 270
C.
Vn
2
= 4KTBR
= 4 x 1.38 x 10-23
x (273+ 27) x 2 x 106
x 104
Vn
= 18 µvolt
BW = fh – fl = (20-18) MHz
= 2 MHz
11. 11
How to determine noise level inHow to determine noise level in
communication system?communication system?
• Noise effect can be determined by measuring:
- Signal to Noise Ratio, SNR for analog system
- probability of error or bit error rate, BER for digital
system
• To determine the quality of received signal at the
receiver or an antenna, SNRiis used.
• SNR o is always less than SNRi, due to the facts that
the existence of noise in the receiver itself.
• Another parameters that can be used is Noise
Factor, F and Noise Temperature, Te.
output=receiver
12. 12
Noise CalculationNoise Calculation
• SNR is a ratio of signal power, S to noise power, N.
• Noise Figure, F
• Noise factor, NF
dB
N
S
SNR log10=
dB
NS
NS
FNF
oo
ii
log10
log10
=
=
oo
ii
NS
NS
F = dB
13. 13
Noise calculation in AmplifierNoise calculation in Amplifier
• To simplify the analysis, two types of noise model are used.
• - Amplifier with noise
• - Amplifier without noise
aio NGNN +=
G
Na
Ni No
G
Ni
No
Nai
(a) Amplifier with noise (b) Amplifier without noise
( )aiio NNGN +=
where
G
N
N a
ai = BkTNP iin ==and
input noise, Ni
artificial noise source, Nai
Gain
14. 14
Analysis Amplifier with NoiseAnalysis Amplifier with Noise
io GSS =
( )aii
a
i
aio
NNG
G
N
NG
NGNN
+=
+=
+=
G
Na
Model Amplifier with noise
Ni
So
No
Si
(1)
( )
i
ai
i
aii
aii
i
i
i
o
i
N
N
N
NN
NNG
GS
N
S
SNR
SNR
+=
+
=
+
=
1
i
ai
N
N
F +=1
io SNRSNR <<
(2)
( ) ie TFT 1−=
i
e
T
T
F +=1
Noise Figure: Noise Temperature:
BkT
BkT
F
i
e
+=1
We have:
BkTN ii = BkTN eai =and
=>
(3)
Noise Figure, F
15. 15
Analysis Amplifier Without NoiseAnalysis Amplifier Without Noise
G
Si So
NoNi+Nai
Model Amplifier without noise
( )aiio
io
NNGN
GSS
+=
=
( )
i
ai
i
aii
aii
i
i
i
o
i
N
N
N
NN
NNG
GS
N
S
SNR
SNR
+=
+
=
+
=
1
i
ai
N
N
F +=1
io SNRSNR <<
(2)
( ) ie TFT 1−=
i
e
T
T
F +=1
Noise Figure: Noise Temperature:
BkT
BkT
F
i
e
+=1
We have:
BkTN ii = BkTN eai =and
=>
(3)
(1)
16. 16
Example 2
Noise generated in amplifier of 5 MHz bandwidth is represented by
amplifier input noise power of 0.082 pW. Calculate noise factor and
noise figure if the amplifier was fed with the
(a) source input signal match the temperature of 300 K
(b) source input signal match the temperature of 100 K
No
Ni
Ne = 0.082PW
(a) Noise power from the source input = KTiB
= 1.38 x 10-23
x 300 x 5 x 106
= 0.021 pW
9.4
021.0
103.0
021.0
082.0021.0
FigureNoise ==
+
=
+
=
Ni
NeNi
Noise Factor = 10log10
4.9 = 6.9 dB
Ni
17. 17
(b) Noise power from the source input = KTiB
= 1.38 x 10-23
x 100 x 5 x 106
= 0.007 pW
7.12
007.0
103.0
007.0
082.0007.0
ureFaktor Fig ==
+
=
+
=
Ni
NeNi
Noise Factor = 10log10
12.7 = 11.04 dB
Noise factor and noise figure were less when operated at room
temperature.
No
Ni
Ne = 0.082PW
18. 18
Example 3
An antenna is connected to an amplifier with noise temperature, Te
= 125 o
K,
gain, G = 108
. Given the bandwidth, B = 10 MHz and output receiver noise, No
= 10 µW. Determine the antenna temperature, Ti and noise figure, F of the
receiver.
( )
( )
( )
( )
KT
T
GTTKB
GBKTBKT
GNNN
i
i
ei
ei
eio
o
8623
600
1012510101038.110
=∴
+×××=
+=
+=
+=
−
µ
2.1
600
125
11 =+=+=
i
e
T
T
F or 2.1
8.82
100
==
+
=
i
ei
N
NN
F
Thanks to Samura
(600+125)/600