This document discusses carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates as compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include trioses, tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses. The document discusses various properties of monosaccharides including isomerism, anomerism, mutarotation, and common chemical reactions like oxidation, reduction, and reactions with acids and bases. It also summarizes important derivatives of monosaccharides such as amino sugars, deoxy sugars, sugar acids, sugar alcohols, esters, and glycosides.

1. Biochemistry for Medics
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2. The term carbohydrate is derived from the French term : hydrate de
carbone
 Compounds composed of C, H, and O
 Empirical formula (CH2O)n when n = 5 then C5H10O5
Not all carbohydrates have this empirical formula: e.g.
deoxysugars, amino sugars etc
Carbohydrates are the most abundant compounds found in nature
(cellulose: 100 billion tons annually)

3. -They have large number of hydroxyl groups (polyhydroxy)
-In addition they may contain-an aldehyde group
(polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a keto group-(polyhydroxyketones).
-Their derivatives may also contain nitrogen, phosphorus or sulfur.
 H C O
H COH 
 R
HYDROXYL GROUP ALDEHYDE GROUP
KETO GROUP

4. Functions of Carbohydrates

5. Classification of carbohydrates

6. Monosaccharides

7. MONOSACCHARIDES NOMENCLATURE
D-Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone.

8. Monosaccharides Classification
Name Relevant examples
3 Triose Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone
4 Tetrose Erythrose ,Erythrulose
5 Pentose Ribose, Ribulose, Xylulose
6 Hexose Glucose, Galactose, Mannose, Fructose
Neuraminic acid
9 Nonose also called Sialic acid

9. Aldose sugars
n - denotes the number of asymmetric carbon atoms

10. Ketose sugars
n - denotes the number of asymmetric carbon atoms

11. Asymmetric carbon atom
Dihydroxyacetone.

12. Isomerism in Monosaccharides

13. D and L Isomers Of Glyceraldehyde

14. Isomers of Monosaccharides(D and L)

15. D and L Isomers of Fructose

16. Isomerism in Monosaccharides

17. POLARIMETRY

18. Specific rotation of various carbohydrates at 20oC

19. Isomers differing as a result of variations in configuration of the —OH and —H on carbon atoms 2, 3, and 4 of glucose are known as ep
Isomers of Monosaccharides

20. Epimers of Glucose

21. Isomers of Monosaccharides(Aldoses)

22. Isomers of Monosaccharides
(Ketoses)

23. Isomers of monosaccharides

24. Isomers of monosaccharides

25. Anomers
Haworth Projection
of -D-Glucose

26. Anomers

27. Anomers

28. Mutarotation

29. Isomers of Monosaccharides

30. Structural representation of sugars

31. Rules for drawing Haworth
projections

32. Rules for drawing Haworth
projections

33. Rules for drawing Haworth
projections

34. Rules for drawing Haworth projections

35. Pyranose and Furanose forms of Glucose

36. Pyranose and Furanose forms of Ribose

37. Chair and Boat Conformations
Chair and boat conformations of a pyranose sugar
2 possible chair conformations of -D-glucose

38. Reactions of monosaccharides

39. Formation of osazones

40. Formation of osazones

41. Oxidation reactions

42. Oxidation Products Of D-Glucose

43. Reduction

44. Sructures of some sugar alcohols

45. Action of strong acids on monosaccharides

46. Action of Alkalies on sugars

47. Action of Alkalies on sugars

48. Important derivatives of monosaccharides

49. Amino Sugars

50. Amino Sugar acids

51. 2-Deoxy sugars

52. Deoxy Sugars

53. 3-Sugar acids

54. 4-Sugar alcohols

55. 5-Sugar Esters

56. 6-Glycosides

57. Condensation reactions: Acetal and Ketal formation

58. Significance of Glycosides

59. Summary