Carbohydrates are one of the major classes of biological molecules and are the most abundant. They have many important functions including energy storage, structural components, and cell signaling. Carbohydrates exist as monomers, dimers, oligomers, and polymers. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are the simplest units and exist as open chains or rings. Isomers have the same molecular formula but different structures. Cyclization of monosaccharides forms rings called pyranoses and furanoses. The document defines important carbohydrate terms and classifications.

1. CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION TO
CARBOHYDRATES
Monosaccharides

2. INTRODUCTION
 Carbohydrates are one of the three major
classes of biological molecules.
 Carbohydrates are also the most
abundant biological molecules.
 Carbohydrates derive their name from the
general formula Cn (H2O).

3. FUNCTIONS
 Variety of important functions in living
systems:
nutritional (energy storage, fuels,
metabolic intermediates)
structural (components of nucleotides,
plant and bacterial cell walls, arthropod
exoskeletons, animal connective tissue)
 informational (cell surface of eukaryotes --
molecular recognition, cell-cell communication)

4.  Carbohydrates also can combine with
lipids to form glycolipids
OR
 With proteins to form glycoproteins.

5. Carbohydrates are chemically
characterized as:
Poly hydroxy aldehydes or
Poly hydroxy ketones.

6.  Sugars that contain an aldehyde group
are called Aldoses.
 Sugars that contain a keto group are
called Ketoses.

8. IMPORTANT TERMS REGARDING
CHO
 Asymmetric carbon
 Symmetric carbon
 Carbonyl carbon
 Reference carbon
 Anomeric carbon

9. ASYMMETRIC CARBON
 A carbon linked to four different atoms or
groups farthest from the carbonyl carbon
 Also called Chiral carbon

11. ISOMERS
 Isomers are molecules that have the same
molecular formula, but have a different
arrangement of the atoms in space.
(different structures).

12. ISOMER 1

14. Examples of isomers:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
4. Mannose
Same chemical formula C6 H12 O6

15. EPIMERS
 EPIMERS are sugars that differ in
configuration at ONLY 1 POSITION.
 Examples of epimers :
D-glucose & D-galactose (epimeric at
C4)
D-glucose & D-mannose (epimeric at
C2)
D-idose & L-glucose (epimeric at C5)

18. ENANTIOMERS
Non-Superimposable COMPLETE mirror
image (differ in configuration at EVERY
CHIRAL CENTER.

20.  The two members of the pair are
designated as D and L forms.
 In D form the OH group on the
asymmetric carbon is on the right.
 In L form the OH group is on the left
side.
 D-glucose and L-glucose are
enantiomers:

24. CYCLIZATION
 Less then 1%of CHO exist in an open
chain form.
 Predominantly found in ring form.
 involving reaction of C-5 OH group with
the C-1 aldehyde group or C-2 of keto
group.

25.  Six membered ring structures are called
Pyranoses .
 five membered ring structures are called
Furanoses .

26. Straight
chain
Haworth
projection
chair
Hemiacetal;reaction
between aldehyde and
hydroxy grp.
GLUCOSE

29. ANOMERIC CARBON
 The carbonyl carbon after cyclization becomes
the anomeric carbon.
 This creates α and β configuration.
 In α configuration the OH is on the same of the
ring in fischer projection. In Haworths it is on
the trans side of CH2OH.

30.  Such α and β configuration are called
diastereomers and they are not mirror images.
Enzymes can distinguished between these two
forms:
 Glycogen is synthesized from α-D
glucopyranose
 Cellulose is synthesized from β -D
glucopyranose

31. MUTAROTATION
 Unlike the other stereoisomeric forms, α
and β anomers spontaneously
interconvert in solution.
 This is called mutarotation.

33. OPTICAL ACTIVITY
 When a plane polarized light is passed through a
solution containing monosaccharides the light
will either be rotated towards right or left.
 This rotation is because of the presence of
asymmetric carbon atom.
 If it is rotated towards left- levorotatory (-)
 If it is rotated towards right-
dextrorotatory(+)

34. REDUCING SUGAR
 Sugars in which the oxygen of the
anomeric carbon is free and not attached
to any other structure, such sugars can
act as reducing agents and are called
reducing sugars.

35. CLASSIFICATION
All carbohydrates can be classified as
either:
 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 oligosaccharides or Polysaccharides.

36.  Monosaccharides- one unit of
carbohydrate
 Disaccharides- Two units of
carbohydrates.
 Anywhere from two to ten monosaccharide
units, make up an oligosaccharide.
 Polysaccharides are much larger,
containing hundreds of monosaccharide
units.

37. 1.Monosaccharides
The monosaccharide commonly found in humans are classified
according to the number of carbons they contain in their backbone
structures.
Classifications
Trioses (C3
H6
O3
) Glycerose
(glyceraldehyde)
Dihydroxyacetone
Tetroses (C4
H8
O4
) Erythrose Erythrulose
Pentoses (C5
H10
O5
) Ribose Ribulose
Hexoses (C6
H12
O6
) Glucose Fructose
Heptoses (C7
H14
O7
) — Sedoheptulose
ALDOSES KETOSES

38. Pentoses of Physiologic Importance.
Sugar Source Biochemical and Clinical Importance
D-Ribose Nucleic acids and
metabolic intermediate
Structural component of nucleic acids
and coenzymes, including ATP,
NAD(P), and flavin coenzymes
D-Ribulose Metabolic intermediate Intermediate in the pentose phosphate
pathway
D-Arabinose Plant gums Constituent of glycoproteins
D-Xylose Plant gums,
proteoglycans,
glycosaminoglycans
Constituent of glycoproteins
L-Xylulose Metabolic intermediate Excreted in the urine in essential
pentosuria

39. Hexoses of Physiologic Importance.
Sugar Source Biochemical Importance Clinical Significance
D-Glucose Fruit juices, hydrolysis of
starch, cane or beet sugar,
maltose and lactose
The main metabolic fuel for
tissues; "blood sugar"
Excreted in the urine
(glucosuria) in poorly
controlled diabetes
mellitus as a result of
hyperglycemia
D-Fructose Fruit juices, honey,
hydrolysis of cane or beet
sugar and inulin, enzymic
isomerization
of glucosesyrups for food
manufacture
Readily metabolized either
via glucoseor directly
Hereditary fructose
intolerance leads to
fructose accumulation
and hypoglycemia
D-Galactose Hydrolysis of lactose Readily metabolized to glucose;
synthesized in the mammary
gland for synthesis of lactose in
milk. A constituent of
glycolipids and glycoproteins
Hereditary galactosemia
as a result of failure to
metabolize galactose
leads to cataracts
D-Mannose Hydrolysis of plant
mannan gums
Constituent of glycoproteins