Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Amino Acids: The images have big font size and reduced background color. Useful for classroom and printouts. The rest is standard stuff.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
Fatty acids are obtained from the hydrolysis of fats.
Fatty acids that occur in natural fats usually contain an even number of carbon atoms (due to synthesis from 2-carbon units) and are straight chain derivatives.
The chain may be saturated (containing no double bonds) or unsaturated (containing one or more double bonds).
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Amino Acids: The images have big font size and reduced background color. Useful for classroom and printouts. The rest is standard stuff.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
Fatty acids are obtained from the hydrolysis of fats.
Fatty acids that occur in natural fats usually contain an even number of carbon atoms (due to synthesis from 2-carbon units) and are straight chain derivatives.
The chain may be saturated (containing no double bonds) or unsaturated (containing one or more double bonds).
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
2. • Structures of major compounds of the body
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Amino Acids
3. Structures of major compounds of the body
• Although cells are 70-95% water, the rest consists mostly of
Carbon-based compounds.
• Proteins, DNA, Carbohydrates, and Lipids are all composed of
carbon atoms bonded to each other and to atoms of other
elements
• These elements commonly include Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O),
Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), and Phosphorus (P).
4. • Carbon atoms are versatile and can form up to four
bonds (single, double, or triple) and rings.
• Functional groups in organic molecules confer
chemical reactivity and other characteristics.
• Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within
molecules that are responsible for the characteristic
chemical reactions of those molecules
5.
6.
7. Oxidized and Reduced Groups
Oxidation is the loss of electrons and results in the loss of hydrogen atoms together with one
or two electrons or the gain of an oxygen atom or hydroxyl group.
Reduction is the gain of electrons and results in the gain of hydrogen atoms or the loss of an
oxygen atom.
8. Groups That Carry a Charge
• In biomolecules, the major anionic
substituents are carboxylate groups,
phosphate groups, or sulfate groups (the “-
ate” suffix denotes a negative charge)
• Compounds that contain nitrogen are usually
basic and can acquire a positive charge
9.
10.
11. Carbohydrates
CARBOHYDRATES ARE ALDEHYDE OR KETONE DERIVATIVES OF POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOLS.
If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the sugar is an aldose
if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the sugar is a ketose.
Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars.
12. • Monosaccharides are those carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed into
simpler carbohydrates:
• Disaccharides are condensation products of two monosaccharide units.
• Oligosaccharides are condensation products of two to ten
monosaccharides.
• Polysaccharides are condensation products of more than ten
monosaccharide units.
13.
14.
15. Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates which
cannot be broken down to simpler sugar by hydrolysis.
• Chemical composition- Formula Cn(H2O)n- n(3-7)
• Classification of Monosaccharides
• They may be classified on the basis of number of carbon as
trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, or heptoses, depending upon
the number of carbon atoms; and as aldoses or ketoses depending
upon whether they have an aldehyde or ketone group.
16. • Glucose- Occurs in fruits, like grapes, and honey
• It is white crystalline solid readily soluble in water and sweet in
taste.
20. The stereospecificity of D-
glucose is still frequently
denoted in medicine by the
use of its old name,
dextrose. A solution
used for intravenous
infusions in patients is a 5%
(5 g/100 mL) solution of
dextrose.
21. DISACCHARIDES
• These are carbohydrates that yield two
molecules of same or different types of
monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
• The general formulais Cn(H2O)n-1
• LACTOSE
• Lactose is called as milk sugar.
• It is present in milk and is made up of
monosaccharides - glucose and galactose.
• Glucose + Galactose= Lactose
22. MALTOSE SUCROSE
• Maltose is also known as ‘malt
sugar’ and is present
in germinating cereals, malt
etc.
• It is the intermediate product
in the hydrolysis of starch by
amylase in the alimentary
canal.
• It is made up of 2 molecules of
glucose.
• Glucose + Glucose=
Maltose
Sucrose is called as ‘table sugar’ or ‘cane
sugar’.
It is the common sugar and is widely
distributed in all photosynthetic plants.
It does not exist in the body but occurs in
sugarcane, pineapple, sweet potato and
honey.
It is made up of glucose and fructose.
Glucose + Fructose= Sucrose
23. Glycosidic bond
• A glycosidic bond is a type of covalent bond that joins a
carbohydrate molecule to another group, which may or may not
be another carbohydrate.
The subunits of disaccharides and polysaccharides are linked by
glycosidic bonds.
• During this bond formation water is formed and thus is called as
Condensation.
24. POLYSACCHARIDES
• Polysaccharides are long carbohydrates molecules of repeated monomer
units joined together by glycosidic bonds.
• Number of monomers- 10 to thousands.
• High molecular weight and colloidal size.
• Branched or unbranched linear chains
• Sparingly soluble in water.
25. Classification
• Based on Composition
• A. Homopolysaccharides
Formed by one type of monosaccharide.Eg. Glycogen, starch and
cellulose.
• B. Heteropolysaccharides
Formed by more than one type of monosaccharide. Eg.
Mucopolysaccharides, glycoproteins, peptidoglycans.
• Based on functions
• A) Food storage polysaccharides : Starch, Glycogen, Inulin
B) Structural polysaccharide: Cellulose, Chitin
C) Mucopolysaccharides :
26. GLYCOGEN
• Glycogen is the storage homopolysaccharide in
animals.
• It is a more highly branched structure than
amylopectin, with chains of 12–14 α -D-
glucose residues (in α[1 → 4]-glycosidic
linkage), with branching by means of α(1 → 6)-
glycosidic bonds.
• It is mainly stored in the muscles and liver of
mammals.
• Fungi also store food in the form of glycogen.
• The glycogen is converted to glucose as and
when required.Hydrolysis
27.
28. Lipids
• COMPOSITION
• Lipids form a group of organic compounds which are widely distributed in living
organisms.
• Made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but the proportion of oxygen is much less
than 2:1.
• Most lipids are esters formed by condensation of alcohols and fatty acids.
• PROPERTIES
• Insoluble in water.
• Soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, alcohol, acetone etc.
•
29.
30. SIMPLE LIPIDS: NEUTRAL FATS OR TRUE FATS
• Fat molecule is composed of 1 molecule of glycerol and 1-3
molecules of fatty acids.
Glycerol
31. Fatty Acids
• Fatty acids are carboxylic acid with hydrocarbon side chains.
They are the simplest form of lipids , They exist in the body either
as free acids or fatty acyl esters such as triacylglycerol. The fatty
acids are released from these lipids on hydrolysis by lipases.
• Fatty acids may be divided into (1) saturated fatty acids and (2)
unsaturated fatty acid
32. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
• These are fatty acids which contain double bonds.
• They have general formula (CnH2n-1 COOH).
• They are subdivided into
• (a) Monounsaturated fatty acid : These are fatty acids
containing one double bond. (eg) Oleic acid. Oleic acid
• CH3 (CH2)7CH = CH (CH2)7COOH
(b) Polyunsaturated fatty acid : These are fatty acids that
contain more than one double bond. (eg) linoleic acid, linolenic
acid, arachidonic acid.
33. Saturated Fatty Acids
• These are fatty acids which do not contain double bonds.
• They have general formula CnH2n+1 COOH.
34. Essential fatty acid (EFA)
• The fatty acids that cannot be synthesised by the body and
therefore should be supplied in the diet are known as essential
fatty acids.
Chemically they are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), namely
linoleic acid, linolenic acid and arachidonic acid.
35. Tryglycerides
• Triglycerides are simple lipids in which glycerol backbone
is esterified with three fatty acids
• a reaction of an alcohol with an acid to produce an ester and
water.
36.
37. Simple (Pure) and mixed fats
• If the three hydroxyl groups are esterified with same type of
fatty acid then the lipid is called as simple glyceride.
• If the three hydroxyl groups are esterified with different type of
fatty acids, the lipid is called as mixed glyceride.
38. CONJUGATED LIPIDS
• PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Phosphoglycerides, are membrane lipids in which two fatty acids are attached in
ester linkage to the first and second carbons of glycerol, and a highly polar or
charged group is attached through a phosphodiester linkage to the third carbon.
39. Special property: amphipathic
Has polar and non-polar ends
Polar hydrophilic- phosphate group attached to glycerol
and a positively charged base.
Non-polar hydrophobic- two long fatty acids.
Due to this nature they arrange as a bilayer.
Phosphatidylcholine is one of the major
phosphoacylglycerols found in
membranes (see Fig. 5.19). The
amine is positively charged at neutral pH,
and the phosphate is negatively charged.
Thus, the molecule is
amphipathic: it contains large polar and
nonpolar regions. Phosphatidylcholine is
also called lecithin
40. Sphingolipids
• Sphingolipids do not have a glycerol backbone; they
are formed from sphingosine
• Sphingosine is derived from serine and a specific fatty
acid, palmitate
• Ceramides are amides formed from sphingosine by
attaching a fatty acid to the amino group. Various
sphingolipids are then formed by attaching different
groups to the hydroxyl group on ceramide
41. LIPOPROTEINS
• Chylomicron (largest; lowest in density due to high lipid/protein
ratio; highest in triacylglycerols as % of weight)
• VLDL (very low density lipoprotein; 2nd highest in triacylglycerols
as % of weight)
• IDL (intermediate density lipoprotein)
• LDL (low density lipoprotein, highest in cholesteryl esters as % of
weight)
• HDL (high density lipoprotein, highest in density due to high
protein/lipid ratio).
42. DERIVED LIPIDS
• This class includes a large variety of highly lipid-like compounds or compounds
derived from the intermediates of lipid metabolism.
These compounds can be classified into two main groups or categories.
A) Terpenes (Isoprenoids)
B) Icosanoids
• This is a large class of derived lipids formed from combinations of two or more units
of a common precursor molecule, named isoprene.
• Isoprene is a five carbon compound derived from condensation of acetyl co-
enzyme A molecule.
• Isoprene units can be linked in terpenes to form a variety of straight chain or cyclic
molecules.
• Terpenes include steroids , sterols, fat soluble vitamins, bile salts, pigment etc
43. STEROID
• Steroids are not formed from fatty acids but
have some lipid like characters.
• They posses 17 carbon nucleus of four fused
hydrocarbon rings.
• Various steroids differ in the number and
position of double bonds between carbon atoms
and in the side group linked to the ring.
• Examples: Steroids include sterols,
like cholesterol, ergosterol, bile salts, sex
hormones and pigments.
44.
45. Cholesterol
Cholesterol is the steroid precursor
in human cells from which all of the steroid hormones are synthesized by modifications to the
ring or C-20 side chain. Although cholesterol is not very water-soluble, it is converted to
amphipathic water-soluble bile salts such as cholic acid. Bile salts line the surfaces of lipid
droplets called micelles in the lumen of the intestine,
where they keep the droplets emulsified in the aqueous environment.
FIGURE
46. Icosanoids
• Prostaglandins :
These are hormones-like
compounds. Prostaglandins
are hydroxy derivatives of 20 carbon
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
• Found in human seminal fluid, uterus,
stomach lungs etc.
• Functions:
Inflammation
• Allergic reaction
• Blood clotting
• Smooth muscle contraction
Thromboxanes :
They are formed in the
blood platelets and are
associated with blood
clotting.
Leucotrienes
These are secreted
by leucocytes and include
contraction of muscle in the
lining of air passages to the
lungs.
Their overproduction causes
asthmatic attacks
47. PROTEIN
• SOURCES OF PROTEIN
Proteins are obtained from
animal and plant sources.
The animal sources of
proteins include milk, egg,
meat, fish, liver etc.
Plant sources of proteins are
pulses, nuts and cereals.
48. AMINO ACIDS
• Amino acids are the simplest units of a protein molecule and
they form the building blocks of protein structure.