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Biomolecules
Here are the key points about lipids: - Lipids are organic compounds that are relatively insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They serve important structural and energy storage functions. - The main types of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. - Fatty acids are the building blocks of fats and oils. They are long hydrocarbon chains that can be saturated or unsaturated. - Triglycerides are composed of fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. They are the main form of energy storage in animals. - Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. They have a glycerol backbone with two fatty acids and
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Biomolecules
- 1. Biomolecules dr.aarif
- 2. Chemicals or moleculespresent in the living organisms are known as Biomolecules The sum total of different types of biomolecules, compounds and ions present in a cell is called as cellular pool Biomolecules are compounds of carbon. Hence the chemistry of living organisms is organized around carbon Carbon is the most versatile and the most predominant element of life. ELEMENT Non living Living Matter (Earth crust) Hydrogen 0.14 0.5 Carbon 0.03 18.5 Oxygen 46.6 65.0 Nitrogen Very less 3.3 Sulphur 0.03 0.3 Sodium 2.8 0.2 Calcium 3.6 1.5 Magnesium 2.1 0.1 dr.aarif Silicon 27.7 Very less
- 3. BIOMOLECULES Inorganic Organic Minerals Carbohydrates Gases Lipids Water Amino acids Proteins Enzymes Nucleotides Nucleic acids Vitamins dr.aarif
- 4. BIOMOLECULES Micro molecules Macromolecules Small sized, low mol wt Large sized, high mol wt Between 18 and 800 daltons Above 10000 daltons Found in the acid soluble pool Found in the acid insoluble pool Minerals Carbohydrates Gases Lipids Water Proteins Sugars Nucleic acids Amino acids nucleotides dr.aarif
- 5. The major complexbiomolecules of cells Biomolecule Building block Major functions Protein Amino acid Basic structure and function of cell DNA Deoxyribonucleotide Hereditary information RNA Ribonucleotide Protein synthesis Polysaccharide Monosaccharide Storage form of energy Lipids Fatty acids & glycerol Storage form of energy to meet long term demands dr.aarif
- 6. NUCLEOTIDES dr.aarif
- 7. SUGAR N2 BASES dr.aarif
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- 9. DNA dr.aarif dr.aarif
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- 12. m- RNA r- RNA t- RNA dr.aarif
- 13. Carbohydrates dr.aarif
- 14. CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are themost abundant organic molecules in nature. The term carbohydrate is derived from the French term hydrate de carbone i.e. it is a hydrate of carbon or Cn(H2O)n Carbohydrates are defined as organic substances having C, H & O Wherein H and O are in the ratio 2:1 as found in H2O FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES - Most abundant source of energy (4 cal/g) - Precursors for many organic compounds (fats, amino acids) - Present as glycoproteins and glycolipids in the cell memebrane and functions such as cell growth and fertilization - Present as structural components like cellulose in plants, exoskeleton of some insects, cell wall of microorganisms - Storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the energy demands of the body. dr.aarif
- 15. CARBOHYDRATES MONOSACCHARIDES OLIGOSACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDES Basic units of carbohydrates Non crystalline, non soluble They can be further Cannot be hydrolysed into in water, tasteless, on hydrolysed smaller units hydrolysis gives mol of monosaccharides a. Based on the no. of a. Disaccharides e.g. starch , cellulose C-atoms b. Trisachharides a. Based on the type of c. Tetrasachharides functional group dr.aarif
- 16. MONOSACCHARIDES Based on theno of C-atoms Based on the functional group - Trioses (C3H6O3) - Aldoses : the functional group is e.g. Glyceraldehyde, Aldehyde –CHO Dihydroxyacetone e.g. Glyceraldehyde, glucose - Tetroses (C4H8O4) e.g. Erythrose, Threose - Pentoses (C5H10O5) e.g. Ribulose, Xylose Arabinose (deoxyribose – C5H10O4) - Hexoses (C6H12O6) - Ketoses : the functional e.g. glucose, fructose group is ketone galactose, mannose ( C = O) - Heptoses (C7H14O7) e.g. Dihydroxyacetone, e.g. sedoheptulose fructose glucoheptose dr.aarif
- 17. Derivatives of Monosaccharides 1.Deoxy Sugars : Deoxygenation of ribose produces deoxyribose, which is a structural component of DNA 2. Amino Sugars : When 1 or more –OH groups of monosaccharides are replaced by –NH2 (amino group) it forms an amino sugar e.g. Glucosamine, which forms chitin, fungal cellulose, hyaluronic acid. 3. Sugar Acid : Oxidation of –CHO or –OH group forms sugar acids. Ascorbic acid is a sugar acid 4. Sugar alcohols : Reduction of aldoses or ketoses. Glycerol and Mannitol. dr.aarif
- 18. OLIGOSACCHARIDES They are formedby condensation of 2-9 monosaccharides Depending upon the no. of monosachharide molecules they are : a. Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose) b. Trisaccharides (raffinose) c. Tetrasaccharides (stachyose) The smallest and the commonest oligosaccharides are Disaccharides dr.aarif
- 19. DISACCHARIDES A disaccharide consistsof 2 monosaccharide units (similar or dissimilar) held together by a glycosidic bond They are crysatalline, water soluble and sweet to taste. MALTOSE : - is also called as malt sugar. - made up of 2 glucose molecules LACTOSE : - is also called as milk sugar as it is found naturally in milk - made up of glucose and galactose - souring of milk is due to conversion of lactose to lactic acid SUCROSE : -is also called as cane sugar. It is the sugar found in sugar cane and sugar beet - most abundant among naturally occuring sugars. - Important source of Dietary carbohydrates - made up of glucose and fructose dr.aarif
- 20. POLYSACCHARIDES - Also calledas GLYCANS - Made up of repeating units of monsaccharides held by glycosidic bonds - During its formation a water molecule is released at each condensation This helps reduce the bulk making it almost insoluble decreasing its effect on the water potential or osmotic potential of the cell - Unlike sugars they are not sweet. - They are ideal as STORAGE AND AS STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS - They are of 2 types Homoglycans and Heteroglycans. HOMOGLYCANS HETEROGLYCANS -Made up of only 1 type of -Made up condensation of2 or monosaccharide monomers more types of monosaccharides -For eg starch, glycogen, - For eg Hyaluronic acid, agar, cellulose Chitin, peptidoglycans etc -Glucan (made up of glucose) -Fructan(made up of fructose) -Galactan (made up of galactose)
- 21. STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDES STARCH 1. Carbohydrate reserve of plants and the most important dietary source for animals 2. High content of starch in cereals, roots, tubers, vegetables etc. 3. Homopolymer made up of GLUCOSE units. Also called as GLUCAN. 4. Starch = Amylose + Amylopectin (polysaccharide components) GLYCOGEN 1. Carbohydrate reserve in animals. Hence referred as animal starch 2. High concentration in Liver, muscles and brain. 3. Also found in plants that do not have chlorophyll (yeast and fungi) 4. GLUCOSE is the repeating unit. INULIN 1. Polymer of fructose i.e. fructosan 2. Found in Dahlia, bulbs, garlic, onion etc 3. Easily soluble in water 4. Inulin is not readily metabolised in the human body and is readily filtered through the kidney. Hence used for testing kidney function (GFR) dr.aarif
- 22. STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDES CELLULOSE 1. Occurs exclusively in plants and is the most abundant organic substance in plant kingdom. 2. Predominant constituent of plant cell wall. 3. It is totally absent in animals. CHITIN 1. Second most abundant organic substance. 2. Complex carbohydrate of Heteropolysaccharide type. 3. Found in the exoskeletons of some invertebrates like insects and crustaceans. Provides both strength and elasticity. 4. Becomes hard when impregnated with calcium carbonate. dr.aarif
- 23. Proteins dr.aarif
- 24. PROTEINS Most abundantorganic molecules of the living system. They form about 50% of the dry weight of the cell. They are most important for the architecture and functioning of the cell. Proteins are polymers of amino acids Proteins on complete hydrolysis yields Amino Acids There are 20 standard amino acids which are repeatedly found in the structure of proteins – animal, plant or microbial. Collagen is the most abundant animal protein and Rubisco is the most abundant plant protein Protein Synthesis is controlled by DNA. dr.aarif
- 25. AMINO ACIDS Aminoacids are group of organic compounds having 2 functional groups (-NH2) and (-COOH) (-NH2) group is basic whereas (-COOH) is acidic R- can be H in glycine, CH3 in alanine, Hydroxymethyl in serine in others it can be hydrocarbon chain or a cyclic group All amino acids contain C, H, O and N but some of them additionally contain S Physical and chemical properties of amino acids are due to amino, carboxyl and R functional groups Amino acids are differentiated into 7 groups dr.aarif
- 26. No. Nature Amino acids 1. NEUTRAL : Amino acids with 1 amino and 1 Glycine (Gly), Alanine (Ala), carboxyl group Valine (Val), Leucine (Leu), Isoleucine (Ile) 2. ACIDIC : 1 extra carboxyl group Aspartic acid (Asp), Asparagine (Asn), Glutamic acid (Glu), Glutamine (Gln) 3. BASIC : 1 extra amino group Arginine (Arg), Lysine (Lys) 4. S – CONTAINING : Amino acids have sulphur Cysteine (Cys), Methionine (Met) 5. ALCOHOLIC : Amino acids having –OH group Serine (Ser), Threonine (Thr), Tyrosine (Tyr) 6. AROMATIC : Amino acids having cyclic Phenylalanine (Phe), structure Tryptophan (try) 7. HETEROCYCLIC : amino acids having N in Histidine (His), Proline (Pro) ring structure dr.aarif
- 27. Alanine (neutral) Aspartic acid (acidic) Lysine (basic) Serine (alcoholic) Cysteine (suphur) Phenylalanine (aromatic) dr.aarif
- 28. PEPTIDE FORMATION Amino acids are linked serially by peptide bonds (-CONH-) formed between the (-NH2) of one amino acid and the (-COOH) of adjacent amino acid Chain having 2 amino acids linked by a peptide bond is called as a DIPEPTIDE The sequence of amino acids present in a polypeptide is specific for a particular protein. dr.aarif
- 29. 4 basic structurallevels are assigned to STRUCTURE OF proteins – primary, secondary, tertiary PROTEIN and quaternary PRIMARY The primary structure refers to the number and linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain and the location of the disulphide bridges The primary structure is responsible for the function of the protein. The N-terminal amino acid is written on the left side whereas the C- terminal amino acid is written on the right side dr.aarif
- 30. The folding ofthe linear chain into a specific coiled structure is called as secondary structure. SECONDARY 3 types : α- helix, β- pleated sheet and collagen helix α- helix β- pleated sheet Collagen helix dr.aarif
- 31. TERTIARY The helical polypeptidemay fold upon itself and assume a complex but specific form – spherical, rod like or something in between. These geometrical shapes are known as tertiary (30) structure QUATERNARY Proteins are said to be quaternary in structure If they have 2 or more polypeptide chains Haemoglobin is an excellent example dr.aarif
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- 33. PROTEINS Function Nutritional Chemical nature importance and solubility dr.aarif
- 34. Structural proteins e.g.keratin, collagen Enzymatic proteins e.g. pepsin Functional classification Transport proteins e.g. Haemoglobin Hormonal proteins e.g. Insulin, Growth hormone Contractile proteins e.g. Actin, myosin Storage proteins e.g. Ovalbumin Genetic proteins e.g. Nucleoproteins Defence proteins e.g. Imunoglobulins Receptor proteins e.g. for hormones and viruses dr.aarif
- 35. Classification based on chemical nature and solubility 1. Simple proteins : They are composed only of amino acid residues 2. Conjugated proteins : Along with amino acids , there is a non-protein prosthetic group. 3. Derived proteins : They are denatured or degraded products of the above two dr.aarif
- 36. Proteins Simple Derived Conjugated Nucleoproteins Globular Fibrous Glycoproteins Primary Secondary Coagulated Mucoproteins proteins Proteoses Albumin Collagen Lipoproteins Proteans protones Globulin Elastin Phosphoproteins Metaproteins Peptides Histones Keratin Chromoproteins Metalloproteins
- 37. LIPIDS With the water,I say, Touch me not, To the tongue, I am tasteful, Within limits, I am dutiful, In excess, I am dangerous dr.aarif
- 38. Lipids are thechief concentrated storage form of energy forming about 3.5% of the cell content. Lipids are organic substances relatively insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether) Functions : 1. They are the concentrated fuel reserve of the body. 2. Lipids are constituents of membrane structure and regulate the membrane permeability. 3. They serve as source of fat soluble vitamins 4. Lipids are important cellular metabolic regulators 5. Lipds protect the internal organs and serve as insulating materials dr.aarif
- 39. LIPIDS Simple Derived Complex Steroids Phospholipids Terpenes Fats & Oils Waxes Glycolipids Lipoproteins dr.aarif
- 40. SIMPLE LIPIDS They areesters of fatty acids with alcohol. They are of 2 types : 1. Neutral or true fats : Esters of fatty acids with glycerol 2. Waxes : Esters of fatty acids with alcohol other than glycerol. Neutral / True fats True fats are made up of C, H, & O but O is less A fat molecule is made up of 2 components : a) GLYCEROL b) FATTY ACIDS (1-3 mol, of same or diff long chained) dr.aarif
- 41. Glycerol A glycerol molhas 3 carbons each bearing a –OH group Fatty acid A fatty acid mol is an unbranched chain of C- atoms. It has a –COOH group at one end and a H bonded to almost all the C-atoms Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated dr.aarif
- 42. WAXES Lipids which arelong chain saturated fatty acids and a long chain Saturated alcohol of high mol wt other than glycerol Example : 1. Bees wax : secretion of abdominal glands of worker honey bees 2. Lanolin or wool fat : Secretion of cutaneous glands and obtained from the wool of sheep 3. Sebum : secretion of sebaceous glands of skin 4. Cerumen : soft and brownish waxy secretion of the glands in the external auditory canal. Also called as Earwax 5. Plant wax : Coating formed on the plant organs to prevent transpiration 6. Paraffin wax : A translucent waxy substance obtained from petroleum dr.aarif
- 43. They are derivativesof simple lipids having COMPLEX additional group like phosphate, N2-base, LIPIDS Protein etc. They are further divided into Phospholipids, Glycolipids, Lipoproteins. Phospholipid They are made up of a molecule of glycerol Or other alcohol having 1. A phos group at 1 of its –OH groups 2. 2 fatty acid molecules at other 2 –OH groups 3. A nitrogen containing base attatched to phos group A phospholipid molecule has a hydrophobic tail (fatty acids) and a hydrophilic head(phos group) dr.aarif
- 44. Glycolipid They are componentsof cell membranes, particularly myelin sheath and chloroplast membranes CEREBROSIDE are the most simplest form of glycolipids dr.aarif
- 45. Lipoprotein They contain lipidsand proteins in their molecules. They are main constituent of membranes. They are found in milk and Egg yolk. Lipids are transported in blood and lymph as lipoproteins. 5 types of lipoproteins : 1. chylomicrons 2. VLDL 3. LDL 4. HDL 5. Free fatty acid albumin complex dr.aarif
- 46. They are derivativesobtained on the DERIVED hydrolysis of the simple and complex lipids. LIPIDS e.g. steroids, terpenes and prostaglandins Steroid The steroids do not contain fatty acids but are included in lipids as they have fat-like properties. They are made up of 4 fused carbon rings Cholesterol, Vit D, testosterone, adrenocortical hormones. The most common steroids are STEROLS. Common sterols are Cholesterol and ergosterol dr.aarif
- 47. Terpenes Terpenes are amajor component of essential oils produced by plants. They give fragrance to the plant parts. Vitamins A, E and K contain a terpenoid called phytol Carotenoid pigment is precursor for Vitamin A Lycopene, a pigment present in tomatoes is a terpenoid Gibberellins, the plant hormone is also a terpene dr.aarif
- 48. ENZYMES dr.aarif
- 49. Enzymes are agroup of catalysts functioning in a biological system They are usually proteinaceous substances produced by the living cell Without themselves getting affected. Enzymes enhance the rate of reaction and are formed in the cell under the instructions of genes ENZYMOLOGY is the branch of science that deals with the study of Enzymes in all the aspects like nomenclature, reactions and functions Enzymes occur in colloidal state and are often produced in inactive form called proenzymes (zymogen), which are converted to their active forms by specific factors like pH, substrate etc. The enzymes that are produced within a cell for metabolic activities are known as endoenzymes and those which act away from the site of synthesis are called exo-enzymes dr.aarif
- 50. GENERAL PROPERTIES OFENZYME AND FACTORS AFFECTING THEIR ACTIVITY 1) Enzymes accelerate the reaction but do not initiate it. 2) Enzymes themselves do not participate in the reaction and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction. Enzymes, are therefore, needed in small amounts. 3) The molecule of an enzyme is larger than that of substrate molecule and hence during reaction a specific part of enzyme molecule comes in contact with the substrate molecule. That part is called active site of enzyme. 4) Amphoteric nature: Chemically most of the enzymes are proteins and, therefore, show amphoteric nature. The enzymes can react with acidic substances as well as alkaline substances. dr.aarif
- 51. 5) Specificity: Mostof the enzymes are specific in their action. A single enzyme acts upon a single substrate or a group of closely related substrates. For example, the enzyme urease can act only upon urea invertase can act upon sucrose only A slight change in the configuration of the substrate molecule requires action by a different enzyme. 6) Colloidal nature: All enzymes are colloidal in nature and thus provide large surface area for reaction to take place. Colloids (colloids- gel like) are mixtures of two components i.e. dispersed particles and dispersion medium. The size of the dispersed particles is larger than dispersion medium. dr.aarif
- 52. 7) Enzyme optima: Enzymes generally work best under certain narrowly defined conditions referred to as optima. These include appropriate temperature and PH. a) Temperature sensitivity : Since the enzymes are proteins, they are affected by change in temperature. With increase in temperature, increase in enzyme activity takes place (up to 40 C). However, when temperature increases above 60 C the proteins undergo denaturation or even complete breakdown. When the temperature is reduced to freezing point or below freezing point the enzymes become inactivated but they are not destroyed. The rate of reaction is more at optimum temperature. b) pH sensitivity : Most of the enzymes are specific to pH and remain active within particular range of pH. The strong acid or strong base denatures enzymes. Most of the intracellular enzymes function best around neutral pH dr.aarif
- 53. 8) Concentration ofenzyme and substrate : The rate of reaction is proportionate to the concentration of the reacting molecules. If the substrate concentration is increased the rate of enzyme action also increases up to certain limit. Beyond a certain concentration, the enzyme molecules remain saturated with substrate molecules and the activity becomes steady. 9) Enzyme inhibitors : Enzyme inhibitors are certain products which inhibit enzyme activity. During the reaction, if the active site of enzyme is occupied by these inhibitors instead of substrate molecules and the activity of enzyme is lost. These substances are like substrate molecules in their structure and are called competitive inhibitors. dr.aarif
- 54. Group of Enzymes Reactions catalysed Examples 1. Oxidoreductases Transfer of O2 or H2 atoms Dehydrogenase or electrons from one Oxidases substrate to another 2.Transferases Transfer of a specific group Transaminase from one substrate to another 3.Hydrolases Hydrolysis of a substrate Digestive enzymes 4. Isomerases Change of the molecular Phospho Hexo form of the substrate isomerase 5.Lyases Non hydrolytic removal or Decarboxylase addition of a group to a Aldolase substrate 6. Ligases Joining of 2 molecules by Citric acid formation of new bonds synthetase dr.aarif
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