The document discusses the origins and early forms of cities. It describes how the first cities like Jericho and Catal Huyuk emerged when people transitioned away from solely focusing on basic survival needs. These early cities relied on advanced agriculture and trade. Catal Huyuk had unusual features like houses built together without doors and accessed through roof hatches for added safety. Central planning and social hierarchies emerged as irrigation systems required organization and defense structures were built. The document then contrasts natural, unplanned growth of settlements with planned cities laid out using grids and master plans.
1.2 town planning greek and roman cultureSachin PatiL
Necessity scope principles of Town Planning,
Present status of town planning in India,
Contribution of town planners in modern era,
Sir Patrick Geddes,
Sir Ebenezer Howard,
Clarence stein,
Sir Patrick Abercrombie,
Le Corbusier,
1.2 town planning greek and roman cultureSachin PatiL
Necessity scope principles of Town Planning,
Present status of town planning in India,
Contribution of town planners in modern era,
Sir Patrick Geddes,
Sir Ebenezer Howard,
Clarence stein,
Sir Patrick Abercrombie,
Le Corbusier,
Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, designer, writer, and educator. He designed more than 1,000 structures over a creative period of 70 years.
Wrightt believed in designing in harmony with humanity and its environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture.
This philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater (1935), which has been called the best all-time work of American architecture. As a founder of organic architecture, Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing three generations of architects worldwide through his works.
There is a train station and a few office and apartment buildings in Broadacre City. All important transport is done by automobile, and the pedestrian can exist safely only within the confines of the one-acre (0.40-hectare) plots where most of the population dwells.
LIBRARY STUDY, 8TH SEM, COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE, BHADDAL,
concourse, hierarchy of bus terminals, i.s.b.t. design, introduction, layout, planning criteria, sizes, space requirements, types of vehicular movement
This presentation is about urban squares in cities and towns. They acts as gathering and interaction spaces for public. They are also called as civic center, city square, urban square, market square, public square, piazza, plaza.
This presentation is a compilation of selected topics on the history of urbanization, urban and regional planning theories, urban thinkers and their contributes, concepts, bases of land use, applicability to the Philippine setting, and a briefer of urban design elements.
Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, designer, writer, and educator. He designed more than 1,000 structures over a creative period of 70 years.
Wrightt believed in designing in harmony with humanity and its environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture.
This philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater (1935), which has been called the best all-time work of American architecture. As a founder of organic architecture, Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing three generations of architects worldwide through his works.
There is a train station and a few office and apartment buildings in Broadacre City. All important transport is done by automobile, and the pedestrian can exist safely only within the confines of the one-acre (0.40-hectare) plots where most of the population dwells.
LIBRARY STUDY, 8TH SEM, COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE, BHADDAL,
concourse, hierarchy of bus terminals, i.s.b.t. design, introduction, layout, planning criteria, sizes, space requirements, types of vehicular movement
This presentation is about urban squares in cities and towns. They acts as gathering and interaction spaces for public. They are also called as civic center, city square, urban square, market square, public square, piazza, plaza.
This presentation is a compilation of selected topics on the history of urbanization, urban and regional planning theories, urban thinkers and their contributes, concepts, bases of land use, applicability to the Philippine setting, and a briefer of urban design elements.
Presentación sobre los espacios urbanos, elaborada para la asignatura de ciencias sociales de la sección bilingüe del I.E.S. Fray Pedro de Urbina (Miranda de Ebro)
APA 2013 Big City Directors Discuss Job Creation (S495)Joseph Horwedel
The findings of the 2012 Big City Planning Directors Institute in Cambridge focused on economic development. This is one of three presentations made in Chicago at the annual Planning Associaiton National Conference.
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia,.docxrossskuddershamus
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South
Africa
Author(s): Ikem Stanley Okoye
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 381-
396
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians
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Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in
Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa
IKEM STANLEY OKOYE
University of Delaware
Q: Do you think that a modern Nigerian aesthetic is possible? artist Demas Nwoko, for example-to mount a challenge
A: A Nigerian aesthetic? On what would it be based that is as to the fledgling orthodoxy. Nwoko, who in the 1960s, as
solid as that on which Aalto's Finnish tradition or Tange's on the part of the pan-African art group Mbari-Mbayo, wrote
Japanese tradition was? profusely on the significance of Africa's past, was in the
1970s not only commissioned but actually constructed sev-
Maxwell Fry eral important projects. This series of threatening acts nev-
We must ... draw on our traditions. ertheless finally brought legitimacy to the idea that an
understanding of African architectural and art history could David Aradeon
produce buildings that not only would receive critical
Good and up-coming architects are coming to terms with the fact acclaim, but could secure further commissions for one who
that they live in Africa ... you need to look at what's indigenous. was juridically illegitimate.2
Ora Joubert Striving to inculcate an African sensibility in a twenti-
eth-century building, Nwoko created his circa 1967
Dominican chapel (and there is an irony here, of course) in
r~~P~~rer~f~ace~~ ~concrete, capturing the fluidity of an object formed in clay
Interestingly, the A.
this report talks about the periodical effects of technology on architecture.
how architecture evolved from the stone ages to industrial ages then to modern times, due to the introduction of technology as a driving force...
Would the disappearance of one's building influence his own daydreams, experience, and sense of belonging? Would this person remember it? Would these memories preserve the demolished building? This paper explores people's memories and perceptions upon the demolition of a historical building, and their effect on the produced space and sense of belonging. It documents people's narratives as a way of conserving the building through their memories. The paper focuses on Wikāliẗạl-’Anbariyin, a market that dates to the Fatimid period and represents a significant Mamluk architectural style. Its location is at ạl-Mu’iz Street, near ạl-Ạzhar Street, ạl-jmmạliyha district, Cairo. However, nowadays, it is just a ruin with a fence and street vendors next to it, after its demolition in February 2019. The study utilizes qualitative methodology through site visits, observations, and random semi-structured interviews with people inạl-Muʿiz Street. The collected data is thematically analyzed. The results reveal the diversity of memories and their dependence upon the level of interaction with Wikāliẗạl-’Anbariyin. The ability of people's memories to conserve, not only the tangible heritage, building's architectural design and materials, but also the spatial experience, events, and social activities. Further more, memories show people's sense of belonging and place attachment, especially to those who used to work there, even after the building's demolition. During site visits, it is remarkable to observe the ability of previous shop owners and workers to conserve their memories about Wikāliẗạl-’Anbariyin by using simple elements. Finally, the paper shows the importance of using memories as a way to conserve Wikāliẗạl-’Anbariyin even after its demolition.
Regional Architecture and Identity in the Age of Globalization
CSAAR 2007
The International Conference of
The Center for the Study of Architecture in the Arab Region
In Collaboration with
National School of Architecture and Urbanism
Tunis, Tunisia, 13-15 November, 2006
This paper argues that the world regions, according to their traditional definitions as isolated distinctive entities, do not exist any more.
Globalization has created “a virtual region” that is influencing the life of the individual more than the physical geographic regions.
This paper investigates how the process of globalization has taken place in the Arabian Gulf region since the middle of the 20th century and its impact on the formation of contemporary built environment identity.
It traces the origins of globalization and investigates its current “tides” at the beginning of the 21st century.
Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων architekton "architect", from ἀρχι- "chief" and "creator") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings
is the utilization of scientific principles to style and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings.
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
Situated in Pondicherry, India, Kuddle Life Foundation is a charitable, non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to improving the living standards of coastal communities and simultaneously placing a strong emphasis on the protection of marine ecosystems.
One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
Please visit our website: https://kuddlelife.org
Our Instagram channel:
@kuddlelifefoundation
Our Linkedin Page:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/kuddlelifefoundation/
and write to us if you have any questions:
info@kuddlelife.org
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
DRAFT NRW Recreation Strategy - People and Nature thriving together
History of Urban Design
1.
2. The building of cities is one of
man’s greatest achievements . The
form of his city always has been
and always will be a pitiless
indicator of the state of his
civilization.
Bacon, E., (1974), “design of cities”
3. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
the law of human history
…that mankind first of all must’ eat, drink, have shelter and
clothing, before it can pursue politics, science, art, religion
etc’.
4. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
The first cities obviously were built
when humankind had got beyond the
struggle for mere existence.
The earliest known city, Jericho
“Ariha” (c. 7000 BC) was an oasis near
the River Jordan
whilst Catal Huyuk in Central Anatolia
(Asian Turkey c. 6500 BC) seems to
have flourished on trade
Both depended on sophisticated
agriculture, including the rearing of
livestock.
6. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
In Catal Huyuk
the houses were made of mud
brick.
Houses were built touching against
each other. They did not have
doors and houses were entered
through hatches in roofs.
Presumably having entrances in
the roofs was safer than having
them in the walls.
(Catal Huyuk was unusual among
early towns as it was not
surrounded by walls). Since houses
were built touching each other the
roofs must have acted as streets!
People must have walked across
them
7. atal Huyuk in Central Anatolia (Asian
urkey c. 6500 BC)
8. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
In Catal Huyuk
there were no panes
of glass in windows
and houses did not
have chimneys.
Instead there were
only holes in the
roofs to let out
smoke. Inside houses
were plastered and
often had painted
murals of people and
animals on the walls.
People slept on
platforms.
9. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
So it is hardly surprising that traces of the first great cities on
the whole are to be found in great river valleys and basins.
The presence of great rivers made irrigation possible but it
had to be organized:
The successful practice of irrigation involves an elaborate control
system. A system of main channels feeds subsidiary channels,
watering the fields when the necessary sluice gates are closed.
The implications therefore are that there must be some central
communal organization and the beginnings of a code of laws
which the organization enforces …the evidence that there was an
efficient communal organization is to be seen in the great
defensive systems.
10. None of this could have been achieved
without centralized planning.
Small wonder then, that the first cities
show evidence of social stratification
and the development of craft
specializations.
Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
11. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
So, four things in the first place, made the city
possible:
3. and the development of craft- specialties to
serve not only the needs or the desires of the
urban population but also as bases for trade.
4. the development of power structures by which
the irrigation systems, and other aspects of
urban life, could be controlled—usually by
kings and priests;
1. the separation of the built-up area from the surrounding countryside, possibly by
defensive walls;
2. the development of irrigation systems for intensive agriculture;
12. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
As for their physical design, cities and parts of cities, have grown in two ways.
The first:
is described by Alexander (1964) as the natural way in which people simply start
building, as they still do in the shanty towns of the emerging world.
The second:
And then there is the artificial way in which a
master plan is prepared; streets laid out, squares
and urban blocks on to which buildings are then
placed according to some planners’ sense of order
(Stanislawski, 1947).
So will another contrast: between formality and
informality.
13.
14. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
Classical planning
Straight streets, meeting at right angles, were known
in Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon which was planned
between 1126 and 1105BC
15. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
The Egyptian pyramid
stands as the
consummate
expression of a form
which emerges from
the earth as dominant
mass. It is a statement
of unchangeable
absolutes.
18. Classical planning
Such planning was invented by
Hippodamus of Miletus (479 BC) “the
father of urban planning.
Miletus was planned on a checkerboard or
grid as many later cities have been
Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
19. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
Priene built on steeply
sloping ground with the
main streets running
along the contours and
the (stepped) minor
streets crossing them
27. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
Classical planning
The typical Roman city had a rectangular plan and resembled a
Roman military camp with two major roads, the
decumanus (east-west) and the cardo (north-south)
a grid of smaller streets dividing the town into blocks, and a
wall circuit with gates
28. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
This Plan too is evidence indeed that geometric instruments were used by the Roman surveyors, not just
straight edges and squares but also compasses. If such instruments were available for map-making and
measured drawings then of course they were also available for designing.
30. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
The Acropolis was by no means a
typical part of the city
31.
32. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
Islamic planning
Whilst the rules for regular planning were well known in Classical times those for informal
planning were developed in quite a different culture, Islam, during that period which we in the
West tend to think of as the Dark Ages.
33. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
As Hakim says (1986) Islamic Law itself
was extracted from the Qu’ran and the
Sunna by al-Shafi’i (died 819), al-Bukhari
(died 870) and Muslim (died 875).
Once a system of Laws had been encoded,
others, such as Isa ben Mousa (996) and Ibn
al-Rami (1334) extracted and codified
Ahkam or building solutions out of the
more general Laws.
Hakim (1986) analyses the Principles behind
these ‘solutions’, finding that each is based,
directly, on specific verses from the Qur’an
or the Prophet’s own practices from the
Sunna. Hakim analyses these in terms of
their effects on the form of the Islamic city.
34. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
He distinguishes between the public street (the Shari) which is open to
everyone and the cul-de-sac (Zanqa) giving acess to a small group of houses
belonging in co-ownership, to those who live along it.
The Principles include those of:
1. Harm: by which one is
encouraged to exercise one’s personal
rights to the full, provided that in
doing so one causes no harm to
others.
Guidelines of many kinds were
derived from this including those
concerned with locations within the
city for activities that smoke, created
offensive smells, made offensive
amounts of noise and so on caused
Tunis: plan of the Suq south of the Zaytuna Mosque
35. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
2. Interdependence : by which people within the
city and the structures they inhabit are considered
interdependent in what we would call an ecological
sense.
36. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
3. Privacy: by which every family is entitled to
acoustic, visual, and other kinds of privacy.
Given the nature of the Muslim family and the way
in which the women had to be protected from the
eyes of strangers, there were strict rules indeed
against overlooking of any kind. These affected the
positions of windows including their height above the
street so that people could not see in. Nor should
doors or windows face each other directly across the
street into someone else’s doorway or windows.
Above all, visual corridors of any kind had to be
avoided, which of course led inevitably to
irregularities in façade design. Nor should one be
able to look into any part of one’s neighbor's
premises, especially the courtyard and the roof where
his women might be. Even the Muezzin, as he climbs
the minaret of the mosque to call the faithful to
prayer, is forbidden to overlook neighbouring
premises.
37. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
5. Building higher: consisting, surprisingly, of a right to build as high as one pleases, provided
the construction is contained within one’s own air space. This right applies even if such building
will deprive one’s neighbours of air and sun. It will be refused, however, where there was
evidence of intent to harm one’s neighbour(s).
6. Respect for the property of others.
7. Pre-emption: by which in selling one’s property one must, in the interests of social cohesion,
offer first refusal to one’s neighbour(s), adjacent property-owner(s), or even one’s partner.
38. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
8. Seven cubits as the minimum width of
public sharis. A cubit is about half a metre and
this dimension allows two fully laden camels to
pass without colliding.
As Hakim points out, a fully laden camel might
be seven cubits high which gives a minimum of
headroom under any building which spans
across the street.
The cul-de-sac of course may be narrower than
the public street (shari) but at least one laden
camel should be able to pass down it so the
minimum width will have to be four cubits.
9. Any public thoroughfare should never be obstructed by permanent or even temporary
obstructions.
Each owner, however, had a right to use that part of the fina immediately outside his house for the
loading and unloading of his beasts, and so on, but still he had no right to block the fina (the fina is
the exterior space immediately adjacent to the exterior wall of a building, approximately one meter
in width).
39. Each of these Principles interacted with the predominant
urban and architectural elements, and each of them too has a
name which is deeply embedded in Arabic.
And of course there were regional variations depending on
local climate.
Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
40. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
Arab influences in Europe
We know from history, of course, that Arabs carried Islam along the north coast of Africa and
converted the Berbers to Islam who, with their converters, came to be known as the Moors.
Medieval planning : The Dark Ages
Having moved to the
north-west tip of
Africa, the Moors
crossed the Straits of
Gibraltar then
moved up and into
Spain and even into
France (where
Charles Martel turned
them back… and so
on.
41. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
The precepts of Islam itself,
and the nature of family life,
forced irregularity on to
Moslem urban design and,
most particularly, on to the
layout of housing.
But many cities of medieval
Europe also were irregular.
42. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
Since few cities developed very
much during Europe’s Dark Ages,
it is important that we establish
just how much the cities of ‘the
Recovery’ of civilization in
Europe owed to Arab
precedents.
Many of them, but by no means
all, were almost as irregular as
Islamic cities.
43. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
The great Islamic cities on
the mainland of Europe, of
course, were those which
the Moors built in
Andalucia. There are
substantial, not to say
magnificent, remains of
their building in Cordoba,
Granada and elsewhere.
But apart from 19th century
pastiches, there are few
signs of Islamic influence
on architecture or planning
elsewhere in mainland
Europe
44. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
We should look at urban
layouts which display the
unmistakable signs of
labyrinthine planning, with
tortuous, blind alleys, very
narrow, often covered and
ending in private courtyards.
Palermo: survivals of Arabic Planning
We should look for typically
Islamic discontinuities,
irregular aggregations of
houses, the all-of-a-piece
organic planning which is so
characteristic of Islam.
45. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
We might look at constructional techniques,
methods of planning and so on, particularly the
hierarchy of various kinds of street, Islamic
distinctions between fortified areas and
residential areas.
46. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
Even where they were built many such
developments have been lost or prove difficult to
trace since often they were built on to classical
layouts and themselves overlaid by later,
Byzantine or Norman constructions. What had
been a mosque might well have been
converted into a church. The necessary traces
are to be found in a hundred cities, large and
small, in various parts of Italy.
As in Spain, so in Italy cities which had been
almost entirely Islamic might have been changed
for various reasons: military, general urban
viability—the need, for instance, to
accommodate different means of transport—and
even for aesthetic reasons. So streets might be
widened and straightened, dead-end alleyways
opened up, and so on.
47. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
There were several reasons therefore why so many medieval cities were irregular:
1. including the nature of the sites on which they were built,
2. often initially for defensive purposes,
3. the facts of topology, influences from Islam and so on.
4. As Mumford says (1938) (p. 53) the medieval builders had ‘no a priori love for symmetry as
such’. Where it was simpler to ‘follow nature’s contours’ they did so rather than grading them
down or evening them up.
5. Nor were regular streets needed to accommodate wheeled vehicles. Mules were used for
transport so the streets could be even narrower than those of Islam which had to accommodate
laden camels
49. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
Medieval regularity
We tend to think of medieval planning, typically, as
irregular. But that was by no means always the case;
medieval drawings exist of regular, geometric
planning. These are plans for monasteries including
one for Canterbury (mid 12th century) showing the
drainage system and the much earlier design
drawing for the Abbey of St Gall (c. AD 820–830)
The Plan fits into a 160 foot grid, three squares deep
from north to south and four squares wide from east
to west. The centre line of the church lies one square
in from the northern boundary and the church itself
is two squares long.
A large cloister is attached to the south side of the
church containing a refectory, quarters for the
monks and so on.
50. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
As Europe recovered
from her Dark Ages
some of the new urban
forms came from the
invaders themselves.
Once the invasions
had been halted,
Europe recovered very
quickly. continuing
sources of income.
Medieval planning 2: European recovery
51. Zaqaziq University
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture Department
The presence of the merchants naturally attracted artisans and indeed as Pirenne says (1937) there
was a real, if limited, Industrial Revolution.
Thus it was in Flanders particularly that manufacturing and trading began to be developed side by
side which, naturally, had its effects on the form of the medieval city.
The sites most desirable for
entrepreneurs within the town:
merchants, artisans and so on, were those
immediately surrounding the market
place. According to Burke (1975) plots
adjoining the market place, used for
shops, commanded the highest rents.
Indeed as Platt suggests (1976) there was
a premium on sites with desirable
frontages which might be taxed to
encourage efficient planning. Platt shows
ingenious developments in King’s Lynn,
Oxford and other places, planned so that
street frontages were occupied by several
shops but with a single large residence
behind them