ONCOGENE AND PROTOONCOGENE
P53 GENE AND ITS APPLICATION IN CANCER ETIOLOGY
TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENE AND BCA AND BAC GENE AND ITS APPLICATION ON THE APOPTOSIS AND DEATH RECEPTORS
An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. In tumor cells, they are mutated or expressed at high levels. Most normal cells undergo a programmed form of rapid cell death (apoptosis) when critical functions are altered.
Introduction
History
Tumor suppressor gene- pRB
- RB gene
- Role of RB in regulation of cell cycle
- Tumor associated with RB gene mutation
Tumor suppressor gene- p53
- What is p53 gene?
- Function of p53 gene
- How it regulates cell cycle
- What happen if p53 gene inactivated
- Cancer associated with p53 mutation
- Conclusion
- References
The epigenetic regulation of DNA-templated processes has been intensely studied over the last 15
years. DNA methylation, histone modification, nucleosome remodeling, and RNA-mediated targeting regulate many biological processes that are fundamental to the genesis of cancer. Here, we
present the basic principles behind these epigenetic pathways and highlight the evidence suggesting that their misregulation can culminate in cancer. This information, along with the promising clinical and preclinical results seen with epigenetic drugs against chromatin regulators, signifies that it
is time to embrace the central role of epigenetics in cancer.
describe the tumor suppressor genes and examples for downloading the presentation, more presentations , infographics and blogs visit :
studyscienceblog.wordpress.com
ONCOGENE AND PROTOONCOGENE
P53 GENE AND ITS APPLICATION IN CANCER ETIOLOGY
TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENE AND BCA AND BAC GENE AND ITS APPLICATION ON THE APOPTOSIS AND DEATH RECEPTORS
An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. In tumor cells, they are mutated or expressed at high levels. Most normal cells undergo a programmed form of rapid cell death (apoptosis) when critical functions are altered.
Introduction
History
Tumor suppressor gene- pRB
- RB gene
- Role of RB in regulation of cell cycle
- Tumor associated with RB gene mutation
Tumor suppressor gene- p53
- What is p53 gene?
- Function of p53 gene
- How it regulates cell cycle
- What happen if p53 gene inactivated
- Cancer associated with p53 mutation
- Conclusion
- References
The epigenetic regulation of DNA-templated processes has been intensely studied over the last 15
years. DNA methylation, histone modification, nucleosome remodeling, and RNA-mediated targeting regulate many biological processes that are fundamental to the genesis of cancer. Here, we
present the basic principles behind these epigenetic pathways and highlight the evidence suggesting that their misregulation can culminate in cancer. This information, along with the promising clinical and preclinical results seen with epigenetic drugs against chromatin regulators, signifies that it
is time to embrace the central role of epigenetics in cancer.
describe the tumor suppressor genes and examples for downloading the presentation, more presentations , infographics and blogs visit :
studyscienceblog.wordpress.com
The p53 gene like the Rb gene, is a tumor suppressor gene, i.e., its activity stops the formation of tumors. If a person inherits only one functional copy
Cancer is a condition in which abnormal cells divide uncontrollably and destroy the body tissues. there are mainly 4 types of genes in our body when get altered it will lead to cancer. they are proto oncogenes, tumor suppresser genes, Micro RNA genes and mutated genes. these genes are important for the regulation of cell cycle and other functions in the body. once they get mutated either their function is lost permanently or get enhanced. This change is unwanted in the body and it may cause uncontrolled cell division.
Introduction
Definition
History
Two hit hypothesis
Functions
Mutation in tumor suppressor genes
What is mutation
Inherited mutation of TSGs
Acquired mutation of TSGs
What is Oncogenes?
TSGs and Oncogenes : Brakes and accelerators
Stop and go signal
Examples of TSGs:
RB-The retinoblastoma gene
P53 protein
TSGs &cell suicide
Conclusion
References
Cancer (Concept of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes with special referenc...RubinSahu5
Cancer (Concept of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes with special referencetop53, Retinoblastoma and Ras and APC)
Cancer is a non-infectious disease. It starts at the molecular level of the cell and, ultimately affects the cellular behavior.
It can be defined as uncontrolled proliferation of cells without any differentiation.
Cancer is a genetic disease because it can be traced to alterations within specific genes.
Most cancer cells experience a breakdown in all of these regulatory influences that protect the body from chaos and self‐destruction.
Cancer cells proliferate uncontrollably, producing Malignant tumors that invade surrounding healthy tissue.
Malignant tumors tend to metastasize, that is, to spawn renegade cells that break away from the parent mass, enter the lymphatic or vascular circulation, and spread to distant sites in the body where they establish lethal secondary tumors that are no longer amenable to surgical removal.
All types of cancer can result from uncontrolled Cell Growth And Division of any of the different kinds of cells in the body.
The uncontrolled cell growth produces a mass of cells which are called tumors or neoplasm tumors may be Benign or Malignant.
Oncogenes encode proteins that promote the loss of growth control and the conversion of a cell to a malignant state and Cell Proliferation.
Oncogenes may lead to genetic instability, prevent a cell from becoming a victim of apoptosis, or promote metastasis.
Tumor‐suppressor genes act as a cell’s brakes; they encode proteins that restrain cell growth and prevent cells from becoming malignant.
The first tumor suppressor gene to be studied and eventually cloned is associated with a rare childhood cancer of the retina of the eye, called Retinoblastoma.
The gene responsible for this disorder is named RB .
RAS refers to a family of genes that encode proteins involved in cell signaling pathways regulating cell growth and differentiation.
APC stands for Adenomatous Polyposis Coli.
It's a tumor suppressor gene that plays a critical role in regulating cell proliferation and maintaining the integrity of the epithelial lining of the colon and rectum.
Mutations in the APC gene are associated with familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), an inherited condition characterized by the development of numerous polyps in the colon and rectum, leading to a significantly increased risk of colorectal cancer.
The cells of patients with this condition were found to contain a deletion of a small portion of chromosome 5, which was subsequently identified as the site of a tumor‐suppressor gene called Adenomatous Polyposis Coli, or APC .
APC is known to suppress the Wnt pathway, which activates the transcription of genes, that promote cell proliferation.
Loss of APC function could therefore lead directly to abnormal chromosome segregation and aneuploidy.
A detailed explanation of cloning strategies which involves isolation of DNA fragments from the sample and introduction in to a vector with restriction enzymes and introduced in to host by different methods and finally screening of the host cells with the recombinants based on protein,nucleicacid and antibiotic assays
control of gene expression by sigma factor and post transcriptional controlIndrajaDoradla
explanation of control of gene expression by sigma factor and decription of sigma factor and detailed explation of post transcriptional control by antisense technology and rna i
description of transgenic animals and production with desired traits using different methods and their applications and their advantages and disadvantages
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
2. • A tumor suppressor gene, or anti-oncogene, is a gene that regulates a cell during cell division and
replication
• Tumor suppressor genes are normal genes that slow down cell division, repair DNA mistakes, or tell
cells when to die (a process known as apoptosis or programmed cell death). When tumor suppressor
genes don't work properly, cells can grow out of control, which can lead to cancer.
• An important difference between oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes is that oncogenes result from
the activation (turning on) of proto-oncogenes, but tumor suppressor genes cause cancer when they
are inactivated (turned off)
• The loss of function for these genes may be even more significant in the development of human cancers,
compared to the activation of oncogenes.
• Tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) can be grouped into the following categories:
• caretaker genes ensure stability of the genome via DNA repair and subsequently when mutated allow
mutations to accumulate
• gatekeeper genes regulate cell growth by either inhibiting cell cycle progression or inducing apoptosis
• landscaper genes regulate growth by contributing to the surrounding environment, when mutated can
cause an environment that promotes unregulated proliferation.
3. History
• Dr. Harris’s experiments, tumor cells were fused with normal somatic cells to make hybrid cells. Each
cell had chromosomes from both parents and upon growth, a majority of these hybrid cells did not have
the capability of developing tumors within animals.
• The suppression of tumorigenicity in these hybrid cells prompted researchers to hypothesize
that genes within the normal somatic cell had inhibitory actions to stop tumor growth.
• This initial hypothesis eventually lead to the discovery of the first classic tumor suppressor gene
by Alfred Knudson, known as the Rb gene, which codes for the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein
Two-hit hypothesis
• The Knudson hypothesis, also known as the two-hit hypothesis, is the hypothesis that most tumor
suppressor genes require both alleles to be inactivated, either through mutations or through epigenetic
silencing, to cause a phenotypic change
• Knudson performed a statistical analysis on cases of retinoblastoma, a tumor of the retina that occurs
both as an inherited disease and sporadically.
• He noted that inherited retinoblastoma occurs at a younger age than the sporadic disease. In addition, the
children with inherited retinoblastoma often developed the tumor in both eyes
• Knudson suggested that two "hits" to DNA were necessary to cause the cancer. In the children with
inherited retinoblastoma, the first mutation in what later came to be identified as the RB1 gene, was
inherited, the second one acquired. In non-inherited retinoblastoma, instead two mutations, or "hits", had
to take place before a tumor could develop, explaining the later onset.
4. • Some tumor suppressor genes have been found to be "dose-dependent" so that inhibition of one copy of
the gene (either via genetic or epigenetic modification) may encourage a malignant phenotype, which is
termed haploinsufficiency
5.
6. Retinoblastoma gene
• RB protein- product of RB gene
• Key role in regulation of the cell cycle
• “Governor” of the cell cycle
In general
activation
8. • First phenotypic cancer suppressor gene to be discovered
• Responsible for retinoblastoma, a malignant tumor of retina, a rare childhood tumor
• 60% are sporadic (non-inherited), remaining ones are familial
9. P53 gene
• One of the most important tumor suppressors is tumor protein p53, which plays a key role in the
cellular response to DNA damage.
• It is called as guardian of the genome
• p53 acts primarily at the G 1checkpoint (controlling the G1 to S transition), where it blocks cell cycle
progression in response to damaged DNA and other unfavorable conditions
• When a cell’s DNA is damaged, a sensor protein activates p53, which halts the cell cycle at the G1
checkpoint by triggering production of a cell-cycle inhibitor.
• This pause buys time for DNA repair, which also depends on p53, whose second job is to activate DNA
repair enzymes.
• If the damage is fixed, p53 will release the cell, allowing it to continue through the cell cycle.
• If the damage is not fixable, p53 will play its third and final role: triggering apoptosis (programmed cell
death) so that damaged DNA is not passed on
10.
11. • In cancer cells, p53 is often missing, nonfunctional, or less active than normal. For example, many
cancerous tumors have a mutant form of p53 that can no longer bind DNA.
• When p53 is defective, a cell with damaged DNA may proceed with cell division. The daughter cells of
such a division are likely to inherit mutations due to the unrepaired DNA of the mother cell. Over
generations, cells with faulty p53 tend to accumulate mutations, some of which may turn proto-
oncogenes to oncogenes or inactivate other tumor suppressors.
12. • P53 can lost its function by:
• Non-sense mutation or mis-sense mutation
• Complex of normal p53 and mutant p53 inactivating the function of normal allele
• Binding of normal p53 to viral oncoproteins
13. Li- Fraumeni syndrome
• Li- Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) is a hereditary cancer predisposition syndrome.
• This means that a person who has LFS will have an increased risk of developing cancer.
• Common type of cancer found in LFS- bone cancer, breast cancer, brain cancer
• Affected individuals Carry germ line mutation in one p53 allele, but tumors display mutation at both
alleles
• Another example of two-hit hypothesis
14. APC Gene
• Implicated in familial adenomatous polyposis coli and most sporadic colorectal cancers
• β-catenin- is a dual function protein, tissue formation & helps to control the activity(expression) of other
gene & promote cell growth & division.
• In humans, β-catenin is encoded by the CTNNB1 gene
• Excess of β-catenin promotes uncontrolled growth & division of cells
• APC binds to and inhibits the function of β-catenin
• Mutant APC is unable bind β-catenin to down regulate its activity & produce desmoid tumor
15. BRCA1 and BRCA2
• These are tumor suppressor genes and are involved in DNA repair of double-strand breaks.
• Breast (BR) cancer (CA) susceptibility genes, also incriminated in some ovarian cancers
• Involved in G1 check point
• Block entry of cell into S phase, particularly by inducing CDK inhibitor
• Promote DNA repair by binding to RAD5
• Mutations in BRCA1 (chromosome 17) and/or BRCA2 (chromosome 13) cause decreased stability of
the human genome and result in dangerous gene rearrangements that can lead to hematologic cancers.
• A BRCA mutation is a mutation in either of the genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2.
• Heterozygous germline mutations in either the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes - high risk for breast and
ovarian cancer phenotypes - exhibit loss of heterozygosity (LOH).