What is Genome ?
Types of Genome
Genetic Organization
Genome organization in prokaryotes
BACTERIAL GENOME
Importance of Plasmid
Packaging of DNA
Genome organization in eukaryotes
Chemical composition of chromatin
Nucleosome model
Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
Organization of genetic materials in eukaryotes and prokaryotesBHUMI GAMETI
What is Genome ?
Types of Genome
Packaging of DNA into chromosome
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN PROKARYOTES
Plasmids
Plasmids
Nucleoid
Enzyme
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN EUKARYOTES
Chemical composition of chromatin
Nucleosome model.
Levels of DNA Packaging
Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
It is the DNA located in the mitochondria.Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA) is the DNA located in the mitochondria.
They are double stranded circular DNA molecule.
It is only 16 kb in length – contains 16,600 bp.
It is haploid in nature.
It codes for 37 genes.
13 genes provide instructions for making enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation.
It is a process that uses oxygen and simple sugars to create ATP, the cells main energy source.
Organization of genetic materials in eukaryotes and prokaryotesBHUMI GAMETI
What is Genome ?
Types of Genome
Packaging of DNA into chromosome
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN PROKARYOTES
Plasmids
Plasmids
Nucleoid
Enzyme
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN EUKARYOTES
Chemical composition of chromatin
Nucleosome model.
Levels of DNA Packaging
Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
It is the DNA located in the mitochondria.Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA) is the DNA located in the mitochondria.
They are double stranded circular DNA molecule.
It is only 16 kb in length – contains 16,600 bp.
It is haploid in nature.
It codes for 37 genes.
13 genes provide instructions for making enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation.
It is a process that uses oxygen and simple sugars to create ATP, the cells main energy source.
To modifying the structure of a specific gene.
Gene targeting vector introduced into the cell.
Vector modifies the normal chromosomal gene through homologous recombination.
Useful in treating some human genetic disorders – Hemophilia, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.
Treating human diseases by genetic approaches – Gene Therapy.
Gene Therapy – Replacing the defective gene by normal copy of the gene.
Expressed sequence tag/EST is a short partial sequence, typically 200-400 bp long, of a complimentary DNA/Cdna.
EST is a short sub-sequence of a cDNA sequence.
Used to identify gene transcripts, and are instrumental in gene discovery and in gene-sequence determination.
Approximately 74.2 million ESTs are available in public databases.
EST results from one-short sequencing of a cloned cDNA.
Low-quality fragments.
Length is approximately 500 to 800 nucleotides.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand.
This power point presentation explains double helical structure of DNA as proposed by Watson and Crick (1953).Attempts have also been made to high light the valuable contributions made by Rosalind Franklin and Wilkins. Brief details of different types of DNA have also been included.
well, dis z again another ppt on molecular biology..
I know dis kinda luks boring bt pretty informative
thanks
let me know wat you think abt dis
don't forget to comment
RNA is a ribonucleic acid that helps in the synthesis of proteins in our body. This nucleic acid is responsible for the production of new cells in the human body. It is usually obtained from the DNA molecule.
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.
To modifying the structure of a specific gene.
Gene targeting vector introduced into the cell.
Vector modifies the normal chromosomal gene through homologous recombination.
Useful in treating some human genetic disorders – Hemophilia, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.
Treating human diseases by genetic approaches – Gene Therapy.
Gene Therapy – Replacing the defective gene by normal copy of the gene.
Expressed sequence tag/EST is a short partial sequence, typically 200-400 bp long, of a complimentary DNA/Cdna.
EST is a short sub-sequence of a cDNA sequence.
Used to identify gene transcripts, and are instrumental in gene discovery and in gene-sequence determination.
Approximately 74.2 million ESTs are available in public databases.
EST results from one-short sequencing of a cloned cDNA.
Low-quality fragments.
Length is approximately 500 to 800 nucleotides.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand.
This power point presentation explains double helical structure of DNA as proposed by Watson and Crick (1953).Attempts have also been made to high light the valuable contributions made by Rosalind Franklin and Wilkins. Brief details of different types of DNA have also been included.
well, dis z again another ppt on molecular biology..
I know dis kinda luks boring bt pretty informative
thanks
let me know wat you think abt dis
don't forget to comment
RNA is a ribonucleic acid that helps in the synthesis of proteins in our body. This nucleic acid is responsible for the production of new cells in the human body. It is usually obtained from the DNA molecule.
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.
III year Pharm.D - Pharmacology -II - "Chromosome structure: Pro and eukaryotic chromosome
structures, chromatin structure, genome complexity, the flow of
genetic information"
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. Most eukaryotic chromosomes include packaging proteins called histones which, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity.
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique, and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mitos, and granule, chondros.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
The 1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mites, and granule, condos.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
Genetic Organisation:
All cellular activities are encoded within a cell’s DNA.
The sequence of bases within a DNA molecule represents the genetic information of the cell.
Segments of DNA molecules are called genes, and individual genes contain the instructional code necessary for synthesizing various proteins, enzymes, or stable RNA molecules.
Here, all information about Plant Tissue Culture
HISTORY OF PLANT TISSUE CULTURE
THE TECHNIQUE OF PLANT TISSUE CULTURE
Plantlet Regeneration and Transfer to Soil
A Classification of Tissue Culture Techniques
EMBRYO CULTURE
MERISTEM CULTURE
ANTHER OR POLLEN CULTURE
TISSUE AND CELL CULTURES
SOMATIC HYBRIDIZATION
Techniques of DNA Extraction, Purification and QuantificationBHUMI GAMETI
Introduction
The overall process…
Uses of isolated genomic DNA
Extraction of DNA from plant material
Components of DNA extraction solutions
Cell Lysis or Cell disruption :
Purification of DNA
CTAB Method
Phenol–chloroform extraction
PROTEINASE K
Salting out
Silica adsorption method
Magnetic beads
FTA Paper
Nucleic acid quantification
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
UV spectroscopy
DNA quantification using NanoDrop
MBB 501 PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY
INFORMATION ABOUT DIFFERENT DNA MODIFYING ENZYMES
WHAT IS AN ENZYME?
Alkaline Phosphatase
Polynucleotide kinase
Terminal deoxyneucleotidyl transferase
Nucleases
Exonuclease
Bal31 Exonuclease III
Endonuclease
S1 endonulease
Deoxyribonuclease 1 (Dnase 1)
RNase A
RNase H
Restriction Endonuclease
PvuI
PvuII
Different types of endonuclease enzymes
The recognition sequences for some of the most frequently used restriction endonucleases.
Categorization of enzymes
Isoschizomers
Neoschizomers
Isocaudomers
What is Panchgavya?
ORGANIC PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
COW PRODUCT
PROCEDURE
PHYSIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION
EFFECT OF PANCHGAVYA IN SOIL AND CROP
preparation of panchgavya,
Production technology for bioagents and biofertilizers 2BHUMI GAMETI
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR BIOAGENTS AND BIOFERTILIZERS
PDA CULTURE MEDIUM
PROCEDURE
ISOLATION OF Trichoderma spp.
Mass multiplication of Trichoderma in sorghum grains.
Application methods of bio agent Trichoderma spp.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLGY FOR BIOAGENTS AND BIOFERTILISZERBHUMI GAMETI
WHAT IS BIOFERTILISER? ITS USE ,
HOW TO MAKE?
BENEFITS OF BIOFERTILIZER
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
CROP PRODUCTIVITY
TYPES
WORK
PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZING BACTERIA
PIKOVSKAYA BROTH NEDIUM
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
1. What is Genome ?
A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA, comprising of nuclear and mitochondrial
DNA. A total hereditary material present in an organism. Genome is a totality of
chromosome, unique to a particular organism or any cell within the organism. Each genome
contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism.
How genome and genotype differs?
Genome is a total hereditary material.
Genotype is the information contained within the chromosomes.
Types of Genome
There are four categories of genome according to different kinds of organisms.
Genetic Organization
In the cell, each DNA molecule associated with proteins, and each DNA molecule and its
associated protein is called as chromsome. This organization holds true for prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
2. Packaging of DNA into chromosome
● Packaging of DNA into the chromosome serves several important functions.
1. Chromosome is compact form of DNA that readily fits inside the cell.
2. Protect the DNA from the damage.
3. Only packaged DNA can be transmitted efficiently to both daughter cells, when a cell
divides.
Genome organization in prokaryotes
● They have small bodies and small
genomes.
● Do not contain a nucleus or any other
membrane-bound organelle.
● small, circular (sometimes linear)
DNA present in the nucleoid region.
● They have a single chromosome that
floats in the cytoplasm.
● The genome size ranges in between
104
to 107
bp with a high gene
density.
● Apart from this single
chromosome, some bacteria have
extra-chromosomal DNA called
plasmids.
Plasmids
• Prokaryotes also frequently carry one or more smaller independent extra-chromosomal
DNA called plasmids.
• Plasmids are not genomic DNA. They are accessory DNA molecules.
• Small circular DNA molecules that have the ability to self-replicate.
• Unlike the larger chromosomal DNA, plasmids typically are not essential for
bacterial growth.
Importance of Plasmid
• Plasmids provide advantages to bacteria such as antibiotic resistance, herbicide
resistance, etc.
• In addition, unlike chromosomal DNA, plasmids are often present in many complete
copies per cell.
BACTERIAL GENOME
Bacterial chromosomal DNA is usually a circular molecule that is a few million
nucleotides in length.
Escherichia coli :: 4.6 million base pairs
Haemophilus influenzae :: 1.8 million base pairs
A typical bacterial chromosome contains a few thousand different genes
● Structural gene sequences (encoding proteins) account for the majority of bacterial DNA
3. ● The no transcribed DNA between adjacent genes are termed intergenic regions
Packaging of DNA
● Prokaryotic cells typically have smaller genomes, the need to compact their DNA is still
substantial.
● Escherichia coli must pack its 1 mm chromosome into a cell that is only 1 µm in
length.
● It is less clear how prokaryotic DNA compacted.
Nucleoid
• A prokaryotic chromosome is
circular and resides in a cell region
called the nucleoid.
• Prokaryotic cells typically have only
one complete copy of their
chromosome that is package into a
nucleoid.
• The bacterial nucleoid is -80% DNA
by mass and can be unfolded by
agents that act on RNA or protein.
• The proteins that are responsible for
condensing and maintain the
supercoiled structure of the DNA
have not been identified.
● The types of proteins found in
prokaryotic chromosomes, known as
the nucleoid-associated proteins,
differ from the histone proteins that
appear in eukaryotic chromosomes
and cause the prokaryotic
chromosomes to form looped
structures.
• The function of nucleoids is DNA
determines what proteins and
enzymes an organism can synthesize
and, therefore, what chemical
reactions it is able to carry out.
4. Key features
● Most, but not all bacterial species
contain circular chromosomal DNA.
● A typical chromosomes is a few
million base pairs in length.
● Most bacterial species contain a
single type of chromosome, but it
may be present in multiple copies.
● Several thousand different genes are
interspersed throughout the
chromosome.
● One origin of replication is required
to initiate DNA replication.
● Short repetitive sequences may be
interspersed throughout the
chromosome.
● The chromosomal DNA must be compacted about a 1000-folds.
● The formation of loop domains.
● Number of loops varies according to the size of the bacterial chromosome and the
species.
● E. coli has 50-100 with 40,000 to 80,000 bp of DNA in each.
● DNA super coiling is a second important way to compact the bacterial chromosome.
• DNA super coiling refers to the over or under winding of a DNA strand, and is an
expression of the strain on that strand.
• A super coiled form of DNA is the one in which the double helix is further twisted about
itself, forming a tightly coiled structure.
• There is 2 structure formed :2 structures-toroid and plectoneme
5. In prokaryotes, plectonemic super coils are predominant because of circular DNA and small
amount of genetic material.
● DNA super coiling is a second important way to compact the bacterial chromosome.
• DNA super coiling refers to the over or under winding of a DNA strand, and is an
expression of the strain on that strand.
• A super coiled form of DNA is the one in which the double helix is further twisted about
itself, forming a tightly coiled structure.
• There is 2 structure formed :2 structures-toroid and plectoneme
In prokaryotes, plectonemic super coils are predominant because of circular DNA and small
amount of genetic material.
Enzyme
DNA topoisomerases are essential in the unwinding, replication, and rewinding of the
circular, supercoiled bacterial DNA
● A topoisomerase called DNA gyrase catalyzes the negative supercoiling of the circular
DNA found in bacteria
on the other hand, is involved in the relaxation of the supercoiled circular DNA, enabling the
separation of the interlinked daughter chromosomes at the end of bacterial DNA replication.
E.coli
● The E.coli chromosome is compact, one fifth of cell volume
● The determinants of nucleoid folding
Negative supercoiling by topoisomerases
Condensation by the attachment of nucleoid structure proteins
The nucleoid is highly condensed during rapid growth,
● RNAP (RNA polymerase) concentrates in transcriptional loci
● RNAP is distributed throughout the chromosome
6. Genome organization in eukaryotes
● Eukaryotic genome is linear and
conforms the Watson-Crick Double
Helix structural model.
● Embedded in Nucleosome-complex
DNA & Protein (Histone) structure
that pack together to form
chromosomes.
● Eukaryotic genome have unique
features of Exon - Intron
organization of protein coding genes,
representing coding sequence and
intervening sequence that represents
the functionality of RNA part inside
the genome.
● A human haploid cell, consist of 23
nuclear chromosome and one
mitochondrial chromosome, contains
more than 3.2 billion DNA base
pairs.
● Eukaryotic chromosomes are usually linear.
● A typical chromosome is tens of millions to hundreds of millions of base pairs in length.
● Eukaryotic chromosomes occurs in sets. Many species are diploid. Which means that
somatic cells contains 2 sets of chromosomes.
● Each chromosome contains a centromere that forms a recognition site for the kinetochore
proteins.
● Telomere contains specialized sequences located at both ends of the linear chromosomes.
● Repetitive sequences are commonly found near centromeric and telomeric regions.
7. Chemical composition of chromatin
● DNA (20-40%)
○ most important chemical constituent of chromatin
● RNA (05-10%)
○ associated with chromatin as; rRNA, mRNA, tRNA
● Proteins (55-60%)
○ Histones: very basic proteins, constitute about 60% of total protein, almost 1:1
ratio with DNA.
● Five Types: H1, H2a, H2b, H3 and H4
○ Non-Histones: They are 20% of total chromatin protein:
● Nucleosomal Assembly Proteins (NAP), Other Histone chaperones
Chromosome remodeling complexes 3
● Structural (actin, L & B tubulin & myosin) contractile proteins, function
during chromosome condensation & in movement of chromosomes.
● all enzymes and co factors– involved in replication, transcription and its
regulation
Nucleosome model
Three type of model used to understand DNA packaginf in eukaryotes
Multi-strand model
Folded fiber model
Nucleosome model
Nucleosome model is widely accepted.
● Most compaction in eukaryotic cells is the result of the regular association of DNA with
histones to form structures called nucleosomes.
● DNA is tightly bound to histone proteins which serve to form a repeating array of DNA-
Protein particles.
● The DNA is wrapped around the histone core of eight protein subunits, forming the
nucleosome.
● The nucleosome is clamped by histone H1.
● About 200 base pairs (bp) of DNA coil around one histone. The coil "untwists" so as to
generate one negative superturn per nucleosome.
8. ● Histone tails-
○ Protein modification
○ Protein production
● When histone tails are dissociated-
○ DNA is released for the process of transcription and translation
Levels of DNA Packaging
Three levels of organization:
• DNA wrapping around “Nucleosomes”- The string on beads structure.
• The solenoid structure.
• Scaffold structure.
DNA diameter is 2nm or 20
angstrom. This DNA wrapped around
nucleosome and form bead like structure.
At that time the size of string will be 11 nm.
Bead like structure get closer to each other
and form 30 nm fiber of chromatin. This is
known as The solenoid structure. Further
in this chromatin, loop formation occurs.
And loop domains are formed. The size of
fiber will be 300 nm at that time. This type
of structure known as SCAPFOLD structure.
These looped domains produce the
characteristics of metaphase chromosome of
700 nm. After the formation of entire
chromosome the size will be 1400 nm.
9. Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
Prokaryotic Genome Eukaryotic Genome
Small genome, no specialization Larger genome, cell specialization
Genome = DNA + few proteins in simple
arrangement
Genome = DNA with many proteins in
complex arrangement
Contain single set of chromosome contain one or more sets of Chromosomes
Amount of DNA is smaller typically greater than that in bacterial cells
They are polyistronic They are monocistronic
Most of their DNA codes for protein or
RNA’s, very little “junk”
Most of the DNA does not code for protein or
RNA’s
RNA processing not an option for controlling
gene expression
RNA processing allows for several
opportunities to regulate genes
mRNA has a short life span (minutes) mRNA is long lived (days to months)