Genetic Organisation:
All cellular activities are encoded within a cell’s DNA.
The sequence of bases within a DNA molecule represents the genetic information of the cell.
Segments of DNA molecules are called genes, and individual genes contain the instructional code necessary for synthesizing various proteins, enzymes, or stable RNA molecules.
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
This presentation provide knowledge about Gene Expression & its regulation in brief.
i hope it gives some information about gene expression in your academic time.
In this presentation mentioned - Lac Operon and its expressor.
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
This presentation provide knowledge about Gene Expression & its regulation in brief.
i hope it gives some information about gene expression in your academic time.
In this presentation mentioned - Lac Operon and its expressor.
Assignment on Need of cell signaling, Steps in cell signaling, Intercellular signaling pathways, Types of intercellular signaling pathways, Intracellular signaling pathways, Receptors, Intercellular and intracellular signaling pathways. Classification of receptor family and molecular structure ligand gated ion channels; Gprotein coupled receptors, tyrosine kinase receptors and nuclear receptors.
Cell signaling / Signal Transduction / Transmembrane signaling.
It is the process by which cells communicate with their environment and respond to external stimuli.
When a signaling molecule(ligand) binds to its receptor, it alters the shape or activity of the receptor, triggering a change inside of the cell such as alteration in the activity of a gene / cell division. Thus the original Intercellular Signal is converted into an Intracellular Signal that triggers as a response.
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Organization of genetic materials in eukaryotes and prokaryotesBHUMI GAMETI
What is Genome ?
Types of Genome
Packaging of DNA into chromosome
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN PROKARYOTES
Plasmids
Plasmids
Nucleoid
Enzyme
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN EUKARYOTES
Chemical composition of chromatin
Nucleosome model.
Levels of DNA Packaging
Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
Assignment on Need of cell signaling, Steps in cell signaling, Intercellular signaling pathways, Types of intercellular signaling pathways, Intracellular signaling pathways, Receptors, Intercellular and intracellular signaling pathways. Classification of receptor family and molecular structure ligand gated ion channels; Gprotein coupled receptors, tyrosine kinase receptors and nuclear receptors.
Cell signaling / Signal Transduction / Transmembrane signaling.
It is the process by which cells communicate with their environment and respond to external stimuli.
When a signaling molecule(ligand) binds to its receptor, it alters the shape or activity of the receptor, triggering a change inside of the cell such as alteration in the activity of a gene / cell division. Thus the original Intercellular Signal is converted into an Intracellular Signal that triggers as a response.
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Organization of genetic materials in eukaryotes and prokaryotesBHUMI GAMETI
What is Genome ?
Types of Genome
Packaging of DNA into chromosome
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN PROKARYOTES
Plasmids
Plasmids
Nucleoid
Enzyme
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN EUKARYOTES
Chemical composition of chromatin
Nucleosome model.
Levels of DNA Packaging
Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
What is Genome ?
Types of Genome
Genetic Organization
Genome organization in prokaryotes
BACTERIAL GENOME
Importance of Plasmid
Packaging of DNA
Genome organization in eukaryotes
Chemical composition of chromatin
Nucleosome model
Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
It is the transmission of genes that occur outside the nucleus. It is found in most eukaryotes and is commonly known to occur in cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts or from cellular parasites like viruses or bacteria.
Mitochondria are organelles which function to produce energy as a result of cellular respiration. Chloroplasts are organelles which function to produce sugars via photosynthesis in plants and algae. The genes located in mitochondria and chloroplasts are very important for proper cellular function, yet the genomes replicate independently of the DNA located in the nucleus, which is typically arranged in chromosomes that only replicate one time preceding cellular division
VIRAL VACCINES
Since viruses are intracellular parasites they will grow only within other living cells.
Methods of viral vaccine production:
Cultivation of virus using free living animals
Fertile eggs
Tissue cultures
Objective:
To create a superior enzymes to catalyze the production of high value specific chemicals.
To produce enzyme in large quantities.
Eliminate the need for co factor in enzymatic reaction.
Change substrate binding sites to increase specificity.
Change the thermal tolerance and pH stability.
Increase protein resistance to proteases.
To produce biological compounds.
Investigate how desired mutations can be introduced into a cloned gene
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a common laboratory technique used to make many copies (millions or billions) of a particular region of DNA.
Immunoglobulins:
The Antibodies or Immunoglobulins are globular proteins present in the serum and tissue fluids. They are produced by the plasma cells (B-cells) and are used in the immune system of the body to neutralize pathogenic microbes or other toxic foreign components.
immunostimulants
Immunomodulators are natural or synthetic materials that regulate the immune system and induce innate and adaptive defense mechanisms. These substances are classified into two types, immunostimulants and immunosuppressants.
Immunostimulants can enhance body's resistance against various infections through increasing the basal levels of immune response.
IMMUNITY:
INTRODUCTION:
Our immune system is essential for our survival.
Without an immune system, our bodies would be open to attack from bacteria, viruses, parasites, and more.
It is our immune system that keeps us healthy as we drift through a sea of pathogens.
1. Type I Hypersensitivity:
Type I hypersensitive reactions are the commonest type among all types which is mainly induced by certain type of antigens i.e. allergens. Actually anaphylaxis means “opposite of protection” and is mediated by IgE antibodies through interaction with an allergen
Hybridoma
Hybridomas are cells that have been engineered to produce a desired antibody in large amounts, to produce monoclonal antibodies.
Monoclonal antibodies can be produced in specialized cells through a technique now popularly known as hybridoma technology.
Hybridoma technology was discovered in 1975 by two scientists, G. Kohler and C. Milstein, were awarded Noble prize for physiology and medicine in 1984.
Introduction to Genetic engineering
Process:
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.
It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.
New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA.
elisa
Applications
methods
types
The enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA) is an assay technique designed for detecting and quantifying peptides, proteins, antibodies and hormones.
The ELISA has been used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and plant pathology, as well as a quality-control check in various industries.
The process of the ELISA result in a colored end product which correlates to the amount of analyte present in the original sample.
PREPARATION OF BACTERIAL VACCINES:
Steps involved in killed bacterial vaccine preparation:
1. Selection of an antigen:
The exact strain or strains to be incorporated for preparation of bacterial vaccine.
Eg. Cholera vaccine: smooth strains of the two serological types Inaba and Ogawa
TABC vaccine: O and H antigens in S. typhi and S. paratyphi microorganisms and these organisms also contains Vi antigen.
Each strain is carefully checked for freedom from variation and absence of contaminating organisms.
Biotechnology with reference to pharmaceutical scienceAdarsh Patil
Introduction: Hisory
Biotechnology Biology + Technology
Defn:-
Any Technological application that uses biological system, living organisms, cells, tissues, explants or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or process for specific uses.
Applications of rdna technology in medicinesAdarsh Patil
Applications of R-DNA Technology in medicines:
Introduction Steps involved in recombinant technology:
DNA fragments coding for proteins of interest are synthesized chemically or isolated from an organism.
These DNA fragments are inserted into an endonuclease cleavage site of the vector that does not inactivate any gene that is required for the vector’s maintenance and selective marker.
The recombinant DNA molecules are then introduced into a host to replicate using the replication origin of the vector.
Biosensers are the integrated receptor transducer device, which is capable of providing selective quantitative or semi-quantitative analytic information using a biological recognition element.
Analytical device.
Contains Biological or Biological derived recognition element to detect specific bio-analyte a transducer to convert a biological signal into an electrical signal.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
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Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
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BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH GLOBAL SUCCESS LỚP 3 - CẢ NĂM (CÓ FILE NGHE VÀ ĐÁP Á...
Genome organisation
1. SJM College of Pharmacy,
Chitradurga
Prepare By,
Adarsh Patil
Ass Professor(Pharmacognosy)
SJM College of Pharmacy
1
PHARMACEUTICAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
2. Genetic Organisation:
• All cellular activities are encoded within a cell’s DNA.
• The sequence of bases within a DNA molecule represents
the genetic information of the cell.
• Segments of DNA molecules are called genes, and
individual genes contain the instructional code necessary
for synthesizing various proteins, enzymes, or stable
RNA molecules.
3. • The full collection of genes that a cell contains within its genome is called
its genotype.
• However, a cell does not express all of its genes simultaneously. Instead, it
turns on (expresses) or turns off certain genes when necessary.
• The set of genes being expressed at any given point in time determines the
cell’s activities and its observable characteristics, referred to as
its phenotype.
• Genes that are always expressed are known as constitutive genes; some
constitutive genes are known as housekeeping genes because they are
necessary for the basic functions of the cell.
4. Organization of Genetic Material:
• The vast majority of an organism’s genome is organized into the
cell’s chromosomes, which are discrete DNA structures within
cells that control cellular activity.
• while eukaryotic chromosomes are housed in the membrane-bound
nucleus, most prokaryotes contain a single, circular chromosome
that is found in an area of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid
• A chromosome may contain several thousand genes.
5. 1. Organization of Eukaryotic Chromosome
• Chromosome structure differs somewhat between
eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
• Eukaryotic chromosomes are typically linear, and
eukaryotic cells contain multiple distinct
chromosomes.
• Many eukaryotic cells contain two copies of each
chromosome and, therefore, are diploid.
6. • The length of a chromosome greatly exceeds the length
of the cell, so a chromosome needs to be packaged into a
very small space to fit within the cell. For example, the
combined length of all of the 3 billion base pairs of DNA
of the human genome would measure approximately 2
meters if completely stretched out, and some eukaryotic
genomes are many times larger than the human genome.
7. • DNA supercoiling refers to the process by which DNA is twisted to
fit inside the cell. Supercoiling may result in DNA that is either
underwound (less than one turn of the helix per 10 base pairs) or
overwound (more than one turn per 10 base pairs) from its normal
relaxed state.
• Proteins known to be involved in supercoiling
include topoisomerases; these enzymes help maintain the
structure of supercoiled chromosomes, preventing overwinding of
DNA during certain cellular processes like DNA replication.
8. • During DNA packaging, DNA-binding proteins
called histones perform various levels of DNA wrapping and
attachment to scaffolding proteins. The combination of DNA
with these attached proteins is referred to as chromatin.
• In eukaryotes, the packaging of DNA by histones may be
influenced by environmental factors that affect the presence
of methyl groups on certain cytosine nucleotides of DNA. The
influence of environmental factors on DNA packaging is
called epigenetics.
9. • Epigenetics is another mechanism for regulating
gene expression without altering the sequence of
nucleotides. Epigenetic changes can be
maintained through multiple rounds of cell
division and, therefore, can be heritable.
10.
11. 2. Organization of Prokaryotic Chromosomes
• Chromosomes in bacteria and archaea are usually
circular, and a prokaryotic cell typically contains only a
single chromosome within the nucleoid. Because the
chromosome contains only one copy of each gene,
prokaryotes are haploid.
• As in eukaryotic cells, DNA supercoiling is necessary
for the genome to fit within the prokaryotic cell..
12. • The DNA in the bacterial chromosome is arranged in several
supercoiled domains. As with eukaryotes, topoisomerases are
involved in supercoiling DNA
• DNA gyrase is a type of topoisomerase, found in bacteria and some
archaea, that helps prevent the overwinding of DNA. (Some
antibiotics kill bacteria by targeting DNA gyrase.)
• In addition, histone-like proteins bind DNA and aid in DNA
packaging. Other proteins bind to the origin of replication, the
location in the chromosome where DNA replication initiates.
13. • Because different regions of DNA are packaged differently,
some regions of chromosomal DNA are more accessible to
enzymes and thus may be used more readily as templates for
gene expression.
• Interestingly, several bacteria, including Helicobacter
pylori and Shigella flexneri, have been shown to induce
epigenetic changes in their hosts upon infection, leading to
chromatin remodeling that may cause long-term effects on
host immunity
14. Noncoding DNA
In addition to genes, a genome also contains many
regions of noncoding DNA that do not encode
proteins or stable RNA products. Noncoding DNA is
commonly found in areas prior to the start of coding
sequences of genes as well as in intergenic
regions (i.e., DNA sequences located between
genes)
15.
16. • Prokaryotes appear to use their genomes very efficiently, with only an
average of 12% of the genome being taken up by noncoding sequences. In
contrast, noncoding DNA can represent about 98% of the genome in
eukaryotes,as seen in humans, but the percentage of noncoding DNA varies
between species.
• These noncoding DNA regions were once referred to as “junk DNA”;
however, this terminology is no longer widely accepted because scientists
have since found roles for some of these regions, many of which contribute
to the regulation of transcription or translation through the production
of small noncoding RNA molecules, DNA packaging, and chromosomal
stability.
17. Extrachromosomal DNA
• Although most DNA is contained within a cell’s chromosomes,
many cells have additional molecules of DNA outside the
chromosomes, called extrachromosomal DNA, that are
also part of its genome.
• The genomes of eukaryotic cells would also include the
chromosomes from any organelles such as mitochondria
and/or chloroplasts that these cells maintain
18. • The maintenance of circular chromosomes in these organelles
is a vestige of their prokaryotic origins and supports
the endosymbiotic theory
• In some cases, genomes of certain DNA viruses can also be
maintained independently in host cells during latent viral
infection. In these cases, these viruses are another form of
extrachromosomal DNA. For example, the human
papillomavirus (HPV) may be maintained in infected cells in
this way.
19. The genome of a eukaryotic cell consists of the chromosome housed in the
nucleus, and extrachromosomal DNA found in the mitochondria (all cells) and
chloroplasts (plants and algae).
20. • Besides chromosomes, some prokaryotes also have smaller
loops of DNA called plasmids that may contain one or a few
genes not essential for normal growth.
• Bacteria can exchange these plasmids with other bacteria in a
process known as horizontal gene transfer (HGT).
• The exchange of genetic material on plasmids sometimes
provides microbes with new genes beneficial for growth and
survival under special conditions.
21. • In some cases, genes obtained from plasmids may
have clinical implications, encoding virulence
factors that give a microbe the ability to cause
disease or make a microbe resistant to certain
antibiotics.
• Plasmids are also used heavily in genetic
engineering and biotechnology as a way to move
genes from one cell to another.
22. Viral Genomes
• Viral genomes exhibit significant diversity in
structure. Some viruses have genomes that consist
of DNA as their genetic material. This DNA may be
single stranded, as exemplified by
human parvoviruses, or double stranded, as seen
in the herpesviruses and poxviruses.
23. • Additionally, although all cellular life uses DNA as
its genetic material, some viral genomes are made
of either single-stranded or double-stranded RNA
molecules.
• Viral genomes are typically smaller than most
bacterial genomes, encoding only a few genes,
because they rely on their hosts to carry out many of
the functions required for their replication