This document provides an overview of various gene transformation techniques, including both vector-mediated and direct methods. It discusses natural transformation mechanisms like conjugation and transduction, as well as artificial vector-mediated techniques like Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Direct methods like microinjection, electroporation, particle bombardment, and chemical methods using PEG or calcium phosphate are also covered. The applications, advantages, and limitations of different techniques are summarized. Overall, the document serves as an informative introduction to the key gene transfer methods used in plant biotechnology.

1. WELCOME

2. An Assignment On
Gene Transformation Techniques
Course :- MBB- 501 : PRINCIPLE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY.
Submitted To
Dr. K. P. Pachchigar
Assistant professor,
C. B. S. H.,
S. D. A. U.,
Sardarkrushinagar-385 506.
Submitted by
Vaghela Gauravrajsinh K.
M.Sc. (Agri), 1st sem.,
Department of Genetics & Plant breeding,
C. P. C.A, S.D.A.U.,
Sardarkrushinagar-385 506.

3. Gene Transformation
 The process of transfer, integration and expression of transgene in the host
cells is known as genetic transformation.
 The uptake of foreign DNA or transgene by plant cells is called as
transformation.
 Various genetic transfer techniques are grouped into two main categories.
1) Vector mediated and Indirect gene transfer.
2) Vector less and Direct gene transfer.

4. Gene Transformation Methods
Natural methods of DNA transfer
I. Conjugation
II. Bacterial transformation
III. Transposition
IV. Phage transduction
V. Retroviral transduction
VI. Agrobacterium mediated transfer

5. Gene Transformation Methods
Artificial methods of DNA transfer :-
 Physical methods :-
I. Macro injection
II. Micro injection
III. Protoplast fusion
IV. Particle bombardment / Gene gun method
 Chemical methods :-
I. DNA transfer by calcium phosphate method
II. Transfer of DNA by use of polyethylene glycol
III. Liposome mediated transfer
 Electrical methods :-
I. Electroporation
II. Electro fusion

6.  In case of plants, stable transformations may be either nonintegrative, or
integrative.
1. Non – Integrative stable transformations :- The transgene is maintained
stably in an extra chromosomal state. This type of transformation are not
passed on to the next generation. e.g., in case of virus vectors.
2. Integrative stable transformations :- In this transformation transgene
become integrated into the plant genome. This integration are heritable.

7. Benefits of Gene Transformation
Techniques in Plants
1) Provide resistance against viruses.
2) Acquire insecticidal resistance.
3) To strengthen the plant to grow against bacterial diseases.
4) Develop the plants to grow in draught.
5) Engineering plants for nutritional quality.
6) Make the plants to grow in various seasons.
7) Herbicide resistant plant can be made.
8) Resistance against fungal pathogens.
9) Engineering of plants for abiotic stress tolerance.
10)Delayed ripening can be done.

8. Vector mediated and Indirect gene transfer
 In this approach the transgene is combined with a vector which takes it to
the target cells for integration.
 The term plant gene vector applies to potential vectors both for transfer of
genetic information between plants and the transfer of genetic information
from other organisms (bacteria fungi and animals) to plants.
 The vector mediated transfer is strongly linked to regeneration capabilities
of the host plant.
 The plant gene vectors being exploited for transfer of genes are plasmids of
Agrobacterium viruses and transposable elements.

9. Agrobacterium mediated transformation
 The Agrobacterium system was historically the first successful plant transformation system,
marking the break through in plant Genetic engineering in 1983.
 The Agrobacterium is naturally occurring gram negative soil bacterium with two common
species A tumifacience and A rhizogenes. There are known as natural gene engineers for their
ability to transform plants. A tumifacience induces tubers called crown galls, where as A
rhizogenes causes hairy root diseases.
 Large plasmids in these bacteria are called tumer inducing (Ti plasmid) and root inducing (Ri
plasmid) respectively.
 The Ti plasmid has two major segments of interest in transformation that is T DNA and virus
region. The T DNA region of the Ti plasmid is the part which is transferred to plant cell and
incorporated into nuclear genome of cells. The transfer of T DNA is mediated by genes in the
another region of Ti plasmid called vir genes (virulence genes).
 The appropriate gene construct is inserted within T- region of a disarmed Ti plasmid; either a
cointegrate or a binary vector is used.
 The recombinant DNA is placed in Agrobacterium, which is then cocultured with the plant cells
or tissues to be transformed for about 2 days.

10.  In case of many plant species, small (a few mm diameter) leaf discs are excised
from surface – sterilized leaves and used for cocultivation.
 During the leaf disc- Agrobacterium coculture, acetosyningone released by
plant cells induces vir genes, which together bring about the transfer of
recombinant T-DNA into many of the plant cells.
 The T-DNA would become integrated into the plant genome, and the transgene
would be expressed.
 As a result, the transformed plant cells would become resistant to kanamycin.
 After 2 days, the leaf discs are transferred onto a regeneration medium
containing appropriate concentration of kanamycin and carbenicillin.
 Kanamycin allows only transformed plant cells to divide and regenerate shoots
in about 3- 4 weeks, while carbenicillin kills agrobacterium cells.
 The shoots are separated, rooted and finally transferred into soil.

11. Cited From :- www.cellcode.us

12. Advantages of Agrobacterium mediated
transformation
1) It is a natural means of gene transfer
2) Agrobacterium is capable of infecting infect plant cells and tissue and
organs.
3) Agrobacterium is capable of transfer of large fragments of DNA very
efficiently
4) Integration of T DNA is a relative precise process.
5) The stability of gene transferred in excellent.

13. Limitations of Agrobacterium mediated
transformation
1)Host specificity
2)Somaclonal variation
3)Slow regeneration
4)Inability to transfer multiple genes

14. Direct method of gene transformation
 Introduction of DNA into plant cells without the involvement of biological agents such as
Agrobacterium and leading to stable transformation is called direct gene transfer.
 The various methods of direct gene transfers are:-
1) Chemical methods
2) Electroporation
3) Particle bombardment
4) Lipofection
5) Micro injection
6) Macro injection
7) Pollen transformation
8) Delivery via growing pollen tubes
9) Laser induced transformation
10) Fibre mediated transformation

15. 1. Chemical Methods
 It is based on ability of protoplast to uptake the foreign DNA from surrounding
solution.
 An isolated plasmid DNA is mixed with protoplast in the presence of the poly
ethylene glycol (PEG), PVA and Ca (PO4) which enhance the uptake of DNA by
protoplast.
 After 15-20 min of incubation the protoplasts are cultured.
 On the presence of appropriate selective agents, the protoplast are regenerated and
the transgenic plants are further characterized for conformation.

16. Calcium phosphate mediated DNA transfer
 The process of transfection involves the admixture of isolated DNA (10-100ug) with
solution of calcium chloride and potassium phosphate under condition which allow the
precipitate of calcium phosphate to be formed.
 Cells are then incubated with precipitated DNA either in solution or in tissue culture dish.
 A fraction of cells will take up the calcium phosphate DNA precipitate by endocytosis.
 Transfection efficiencies using calcium phosphate can be quite low, in the range of 1-2 % .
 This technique is used for introducing DNA into mammalian cells.
 Limitations :-
 Frequency is very low.
 Integrated genes undergo substantial modification.
 Many cells do not like having the solid precipitate adhering to them and the surface of
their culture vessel.

17. Polyethylene glycol mediated transfection
 This method is utilized for protoplast only. Polyethylene glycol stimulates endocytosis
and therefore DNA uptake occurs.
 Protoplasts are kept in the solution containing polyethylene glycol (PEG). The molecular
weight of PEG used is 8000 Dalton having the final concentration of 15%.
 Calcium chloride is added and sucrose and glucose acts as osmotic buffering agent.
 To reduce the effects of nuclease present, the carrier DNA from salmon or herring sperm
may also be added.
 After exposure of the protoplast to exogenous DNA in presence of PEG and other
chemicals, PEG is allowed to get removed. Intact surviving protoplasts are then cultured
to form cells with walls and colonies in turn.
 After several passages in selectable medium frequency of transformation is calculated.
 PEG based vehicles were less toxic and more resistant to nonspecific protein adsorption
making them an attractive alternative for nonviral gene delivery .

18. 2. Electroporation
 Induction of DNA into cell by exposing them for a very brief period to high voltage electrical
pulses to induce transient pores in the plasma lemma is called Electroporation.
 There are basically the following two systems of electroporation :
i. Low voltage – long pulse method (300-400 V/cm for 10-50 milliseconds)
ii. High voltage – short pulse approach (1000-1500 V/cm for 10 microseconds)
 Generally protoplasts are used since they have expand plasma membrane. A suspension of
protoplast with a desired DNA is prepared. Then a high voltage current is applied through the
protoplast DNA suspension.
 The electric current leads to the formation of small temporary holes in the membrane of the
protoplasts through which the DNA can pass.
 After entry into the cell, the Foreign DNA gets incorporated with the host genome, resulting the
genetic transformation.
 The protoplasts are then cultured to regenerate in to whole plants. This method can be used in
those crop species in which regeneration from protoplast is possible.

19. Cited From :- www.slideshare.net

20. General applications of Electroporation
1) Introduction of exogenous DNA into animal cell lines, plant protoplast, yeast protoplast
and bacterial protoplast.
2) Electroporation can be used to increase efficiency of transformation or transfection of
bacterial cells.
3) Wheat, rice, maize, tobacco have been stably transformed with frequency upto 1% by
this method.
4) Genes encoding selectable marker may be used to introduce genes using electroporation.
5) To study the transient expression of molecular constructs.
6) Electroporation of early embryo may result in the production of transgenic animals.

21. Advantages of Electroporation
1) Method is fast.
2) Less costly.
3) Applied for a number of cell types.
4) Simultaneously a large number of cell can be treated.
5) High percentage of stable transformants can be produced.

22. 3. Particle bombardment / Gene Gun Method
 The process of transformation employees foreign DNA coated with minute 0.2-0.7
µm gold (or) are tungsten particles to deliver into target plant cells.
 Two procedures have been used to accelerate the minute particles
i. By using pressurized helium gas.
ii. By electro static energy released by a droplet of water exposed to a high voltage.
 This method is being widely used because of its ability to deliver foreign DNA
into re-generable cells, tissue (or) organs irrespective of monocots (or) dicots
Because of the physical nature of process there is no biological limitation to the
active DNA delivery that makes it, genotype independent.
 This method allows the transport of genes into many cells of nearly any desired
position in an experimental system without too much manual Labour.
 The method was first used by Klein et al. in 1987, and Sanford et al 1987.

23.  The main components of a helium pressure device are; Gas acceleration tube,
rupture disc, stopping screen, macrocarrier carrying particles coated with DNA and
target cells.
 These components are enclosed in a chamber to enable creation of partial vacuum,
which facilitates particle acceleration and reduce damage to plant cells.
 After creation of partial vacuum, sufficiently pressurized helium gas is released into
the acceleration tube to break the rupture disc.
 This generates helium shock waves, which accelerates the macroprojectile to which
DNA- coated microprojectiles attached.
 The macroprojectile is stopped by a stopping screen, and the microprojectiles pass
through this screen and become embedded in the cells kept about 10 mm below the
stopping screen.
 Generally 1000 psi of helium pressure is used for acceleration.
 Macroprojectile is a 2.5 cm diameter 0.06 mm thick plastic membrane.

24. Cited From :- www.researchgate.net

25. Application of Particle bombardment
1) Highly versatile and adaptable technique which can be applied to a wide range of cells and
tissues.
2) Method is simple and efficient.
3) The process of microprojectile bombardment has also led to an increased understanding of
the mechanisms of gene expression and regulation.
4) Microprojectile bombardment can even be used to wound plant tissues, allowing more
efficient transformation via Agrobacterium.
5) This method permits the transformation of cells from a wide range of sources including cell
suspensions, callus, meristematic tissues, immature embryos, protocorms, coleoptiles and
pollen.
6) Microprojectile technique significantly reduces the time required for the production of
genetically modified plants.
7) This method help in the transformation of several major cereals, including barley, maize,
wheat, rice, pearl millet, together with other monocotyledons such as tulip and orchids.

26. 4. Lipofection
 Introduction of DNA into cells via liposomes is known as lipofection, liposomes are small
lipid artificial vesicles.
 The procedure of liposome encapsulation was developed to protect the foreign DNA during
the transfer process.
 The DNA enclosed in the lipid vesicles when mixed with protoplast under appropriate
condition penetrates into the protoplast where lipase activity of the protoplast dissolves the
lipid vesicles and DNA gets released for integration into the host genome.
 This method has not been commonly used as it is difficult to construct the lipid vesicles.
 The success depends upon the protoplast regeneration.

27. Cited From :- www.biologydiscussion.com

28. 5. Micro injection
 The DNA solution is injected directly inside the cell using capillary glass micropipettes
with the help of micromanipulators of a microinjection assembly.
 It is easier to use protoplast than cells since cell wall interferes with the process of
microinjection.
 The protoplast are usually immobilized in agarose (or) on a glass slides coated with
polylysine or by holding them under suction by a micropipette.
 The process of microinjection is technically demanding and time consuming a maximum
of 40-50 protoplasts can be microinjected in one hour.
 The transformation frequency ranging between 14 to 66 %.

29. Cited From :- www.biotecharticles.com

30. Advantage & Limitation of Micro injection
 Advantage :-
1) Frequency of stable integration of DNA is far better as compare to other methods.
2) Method is effective in transforming primary cells as well as cells in established
cultures.
3) The DNA injected in this process is subjected to less extensive modifications.
4) Mere precise integration of recombinant gene in limited copy number can be
obtained.
 Limitation :-
1) Costly.
2) Skilled personal required.
3) More useful for animal cells.
4) Embryonic cells preferred for manipulation.
5) Method is useful for protoplasts and not for the walled cells.

31. Application of Micro injection
1) Process is applicable for plant cell as well as animal cell but more
common for animal cells.
2) Technique is ideally useful for producing transgenic animal quickly.
3) Procedure is important for gene transfer to embryonic cells.
4) Applied to inject DNA into plant nuclei.
5) Method has been successfully used with cells and protoplast of tobacco,
alfalfa etc.

32. 6. Macro injection
 The injection of plasmid DNA into the lumen of developing inflorescence
using hypodermic syringe is known as macro injection.
 It is hypothesized that the DNA is taken up by microspores during some
specific stage of their development.
 This approach is also very simple and easy; the only problem concerns the
frequency (0.07%) and the consistency of stable transformants obtained,

33. Advantage & Limitation of Macro injection
 Advantage :-
1) This technique does not require protoplast.
2) Instrument will be simple and cheap.
3) Methods may prove useful for gene transfer into cereals which do not regenerate
from cultured cell easily.
4) Technically simple.
 Limitation :-
1) Less specific.
2) Less efficient.
3) Frequency of transformation is very low.

34. 7. Pollen transformation
 Involves the gene transfer by soaking the pollen grains in DNA solution prior to
their use for pollination.
 The method is highly attractive in view of its simplicity and general applicability
but so far there is no definite evidence for a transgene being transferred by pollen
soaked in DNA solution.
8. Delivery via growing pollen tubes
 The stigmas were cut after pollination exposing the pollen tubes, the DNA was
introduced onto the cut surface that presumably diffused through the germinating
pollen tube into the ovule.
 This method is simple easy and very promising provided consistent result and stable
transformations are achieved.

35. 9. Laser induced transformation
 It is method of introducing DNA into plant cells with a laser micro beam.
 Small pores in the membrane are created by laser micro beam.
 Lasers puncture transient holes in the cell membrane through which DNA may
enter into the cell cytoplasm.
 This method also used in Plant cells as well as Animal cells.

36. 10. Fibre mediated transformation
 The DNA is delivered into the cell cytoplasm and nucleus by silicon carbide
fibers of 0.6 µm diameter and 10-80 µm length.
 The fibers mediated delivery of DNA into the cytoplasm is similar to
microinjection.
 The method was successful with maize and tobacco suspension cell culture.
 It is the most rapid and expensive method of DNA delivery provided stable
integrations are achieved.

37. References
1) Biotechnology; Expanding Horizons by B. D. Singh
2) Khan. K. H., (2009) Gene transfer technologies in plants: roles in
improving crops. Recent Research in Science and Technology,
1(3): 116–123.