Fruits develop from the ovary of flowering plants and serve several functions including seed protection, dispersal, and defense. There are three main types of fruits - simple, aggregate, and multiple. Simple fruits develop from a single pistil, while aggregate and multiple fruits develop from multiple pistils or flowers fused together. Fruits are also classified as fleshy or dry. Dry fruits include dehiscent fruits that split open at maturity to release seeds like legumes, follicles, siliques, and capsules. They also include indehiscent fruits that do not split open like achenes, utricles, caryopses, cypselas, samaras, and nuts. Some fruits like schizocar

1. FRUITS AND SEEDS

2. FRUIT

3. • Fruit is simply the fertilised and ripened ovary,
together with any floral organ that may be
attached to it.
• Fruits, developed entirely from the ovary, is called
true fruits.
• In some cases, other floral parts may also be
incorporated with fruits, such fruits are called
pseudocarps or false fruits (e.g., apple, fig fruit).
• The pulpy part of such fruit is the flesty
receptacle.

4. Development of fruit
• Fruit development starts soon after pollination.
• In fact, pollination stimulates the growth and
development of ovary and also prevents its
abscission.
• The auxins, secreted by the pollen grains and the
carpellary tissues, are believed to initiate the
growth of ovary.
• Further growth is stimulated by the auxins,
gibberellins and cytokinins, secreted by seeds.
• Thus, seeds play a key role in fruit development.

5. • The major changes, taking place during fruit
development, are the following:
(i) Ovary enlarges by repeated cell division and cell
enlargement, induced by auxins, gibberellins and
cytokinins.
(ii) Succulent parenchyma cells develop within the
ovary.
(iii) Cells get loaded with vegetable acids, sugars and
flavouring substances.
(iv) Dissolution of the existing walls in some cells, and
formation of false septa in others. This alters the
nature and appearance of the ovary.
(v) Transformation of the ovary wall to the fruit wall,
called pericarp.

6. • No further growth occurs in a mature fruit.
• So, it soon undergoes ripening.
• During this, certain biochemical changes occur
giving the fruit its colour, taste and flavour.
• Such changes include the conversion of starch to
sugar, decrease in acid concentration, production of
esters, breakdown of chlorophyll, transformation of
chloroplasts to chromoplasts, etc.
• It has been shown that ripening of the fruit is
hastened by ethylene, formed in it in small
amounts.
• So, ethylene treatment can cause the artificial
ripening of fruits.

7. Significance of fruit formation
• Fruit formation in angiosperms is biologically
significant, since fruits serve the following functions:
(i) Seed protection - Fruits cover and protect immature
seeds against animals and hostile environmental
conditions (until the seeds are able to withstand
unfavourable conditions or ready to germinate).
(ii) Seed dispersal - Fruits help the dispersal of seeds by
wind, water and animals, colouration or taste of fruits
attracts seed-dispersing animals.
(iii) chemical defence - Immature fruits offer chemical
defence against animals. Since they contain unpalatable
and repellent chemicals, such as astringents, bitter
alkaloids, sour acids, tannins, etc. (these chemicals may
disappear on ripening)

8. Different types of fruits
• Fruits are produced only by angiosperms. They are of three major
groups, simple, aggregate and multiple.
• Simple fruit develops from a single monocarpellary or syncarpous
pistil, whereas aggregate fruit develops from an apo carpous pistil.
• In aggregate fruit, each free carpel of the pistil develops to a small
fruit.
• These small fruits may remain free from each other in the form of
a cluster (e.g., Polyalthia) or
• they may fuse to form a single fruit (e.g., Annona): Multiple or
compound fruit develops from a complete inflorescence.
• In this case, the ovary of each flower develops to a fruit and all the
fruits thus formed then fuse together to form a multiple fruit (e.g.,
jack fruit, pine apple).

9. • Simple fruits are of two kinds, fleshy and dry.
• In fleshy fruits, the fruit wall or pericarp is fleshy
and juicy, whereas in dry fruits, the pericarp is hard
and dry.
• Dry fruits are of three kinds, dehiscent, indehiscent
and schizocarpous.
• In dry dehiscent fruits, after a certain stage of
development, the dry pericarp splits or breaks open
and liberate the seeds.
• In dry indehiscent fruits, the pericarp does not
dehisce at maturity.
• Schizocarpous fruits are intermediate between
dehiscent and indehiscent types.

10. Dry dehiscent fruits developed from
monocarpellary pistils
• The dry dehiscent fruits, developed from
monocarpellary pistils are of different types. The
commonest ones are
• legume or pod
• follicle
• siliqua
• capsule

11. (i) Legume or pod
• This is a dry, dehiscent fruit, developed from
monocarpellary, superior and unilocular ovary that has
marginal placentation and many ovules.
• Ripe fruit has a row of seeds on the inner side of a
ventral suture.
• It dehisces by dorsal and ventral longitudinal sutures
producing two valves, each bearing ovules
• Dehiscence is due to the differential drying of the
carpel wall and it often results in the explosive release
of seeds, or in the twisting of valves to dislodge the
seeds.
• Legumes are characteristic of Leguminosae -e.g.. Pea
pods.

12. Legume or pod

13. (ii) Follicle
• This is a type of dry, dehiscent fruit, developed from
monocarpellary, superior and unilocular ovary with
marginal placentation and many seeds.
• Ripe fruit dehisces by one suture, usually the
ventral one.
• e.g., Callotropis, Michelia.

14. Follicle

15. (iii) Siliqua (silique)
• This is a dry, dehiscent fruit, developed from
bicarpellary, syncarpous and superior ovary
with parietal placentation.
• At maturity, the pericarp dehisces into two
valves.
• Siliqua is characteristic of cruciferae.

16. Siliqua (silique

17. iv) Capsule
• A dry, dehiscent fruit, developed from
polycarpellary, syncarpous and superior ovary
(sometimes inferior ovary also) which is
multilocular with many seeds in each locule.
• e.g., Catheranthus.

18. Dry dehiscent fruits developed from
syncarpous pistils
• Dry, dehiscent fruits derived from syncarpous
pistils are commonly known as capsules.
• These capsules are variously named according
to their mode of dehiscence.
• The common capsules are loculicidal,
septicidal, septifragal and porous capsules.

19. (i) Loculicidal capsule
• This is a dry, dehiscent fruit capsule in which fruit
wall bursts in the middle of the each locule into as
many valves as there are carpels. Sometimes,
placenta also splits.
• e.g., Gossypium (cotton),
• Abelmoschus esculentus (lady's finger).

20. (ii) Septicidal capsule
• A dry, dehiscent fruit capsule which dehisces by
longitudinal splitting through the middle septum.
• Seeds are not exposed during dehiscence and so
they are released as loculicidal capsules.
• e.g., Aristolochia.

21. (iii) Septifragal capsule
• A dry dehiscent fruit capsule which dehisces by
breaking the outer wall away from the walls of the
loculi.
• In loculicidal and septicidal capsules, the pericarp
will continue to remain attached to the septum
even after dehiscence.
• But, in septifragal capsules, the pericarp breaks
away completely from the septa.
• The first dehiscence may be loculicidal or septicidal.
• In the former case, the capsule is called loculicidally
septifragal (e.g., Lagerstroemia), and in the latter
septicidally septifragal (e.g.. Datura)

25. (iv) Porous capsule
• A dry, dehiscent fruit capsule with numerous
small holes on its top.
• Through these holes seeds escape –
• e.g., poppy.

26. Dry indehiscent fruits
• These are the single - seeded fruits which do not
burst or dehisce to expose or release seeds.
• In them, pericarp ruptures during seed germination.
• The common types of dry indehiscent fruits are
• achene
• utricle
• caryopsis
• cypsela
• samara
• nut.

27. (i) Achene
• This is a small, simple, single-seeded,
unilocular, indehiscent, dry fruit, developed
from monocarpellary superior ovary.
• Its pericarp is dry, membranous and free from
seed-coat:
• e.g., Mirablilis (4'o' clock plant).

28. Achene

29. (ii) Utricle
• This is an indehiscent, bladder-like, dry fruit
formed in some members of Amaranthaceae
and Chenopodiaceae.
• It is a modified form of achene.
• Here the small seed occupies only a portion of
the fruit:
• e.g., Amaranthus.

30. Utricle

31. (iii) Caryopsis
• An indehiscent, dry, single-seeded fruit,
developed from monocarpellary, superior,
unilocular ovary.
• Its pericarp fuses with the seed-coat.
• Usually, the grain is covered by persistent bract
and bracteoles.
• Caryopsis is characteristic of Graminae.
• e.g., wheat, maize.

32. Caryopsis

33. (iv) Cypsela
• Is a type of single-seeded,unilocular, indehiscent
dry fruit, formed from bicamellary, syncarpous,
inferior ovary.
• Its pericarp is separate from the seed-coat.
• Cypsela is characteristic of compositate, where fruit
is surrounded by hairs (pappus), derived from calyx.
• Traditionally, cypsela is considered as a pseudocarp.
• e.g., Sunflower.

35. (v) Samara
• Is a type of single-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit,
with a membranous Wing-like extension of the
pericarp for the wind dispersal of seeds.
• It is simply a winged achene.
• e.g.. Pterocarpus, Holoprelia.

37. (vi) Nut
• Nut is a hard, usually single-seeded indehiscent
fruit, derived from a syncarpous ovary. During its
development, all seeds, excepting one, get aborted.
• Its pericarp is usually lignified and often partially or
completely surrounded by a cupule.
• e.g., Cashew nut.

40. Schizocarpic fruits
• Sohizocarp is intermediate between the indehiscent
and dehiscent types of dry fruits.
• (e.g.. Geranium, Acacia, Coriander).
• It is formed from two or more one- seeded carpels
which divide into single-seeded units at maturity.
• These single-seeded units include achenes, follicles,
nutlets, samaras, mericarp, cremocarp, lomentum,
carcerulus etc.

41. (i) Mericarp
• Mericarp is a single-seeded portion of a fruit
which splits at maturity.
• It may be dehiscent or indehiscent.

42. (ii) Cremocarp
• Cremocarp is a type of bilocular, two-seeded
schizocarp, developed from bicarpellary,
syncarpous, inferior ovary.
• At maturity, it splits into two single-seeded
and unilocular units.
• Mericarps hang down from forked
carpophore.
• They are found among the members of
Umbelliferae.

44. (iii) Lomentum
• Lomentum is an elongated, dry schizocarp,
developing from monocarpellary, superior
ovary that has one or more seeds.
• At maturity, it develops transeverse
constrictions and finally splits through these
constrictions to form one-seeded portions.
• e.g., groundnut.

46. (iv) Carcerulus
• It is a dry schizocarp that develops from
bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary.
• At maturity, it splits into several single-seeded
segments.
• Carcerulus is characteristic of Lamiaceae.

48. Fleshy fruits
• These are the fruits with succulent and fleshy
pericarp.
• There are several kinds of fleshy fruits. The
commonest ones among them are drupe,
berry, pome, pepo, hesperidium, etc.

50. (i) Drupe
• Drupe is a mono or multilocular, single-
seeded, indehiscent or fibrous fleshy fruit
whose pericarp is well differentiated into thin
epicarp, fleshy or fibrous mesocarp, and hard
endocarp.
• It is formed from a monocarpellary or
polycarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary.
• e.g., mango, plum, peach, coconut.

51. mango plum
coconut peach

53. (ii) Berry (Bacca)
• Berry is a many-seeded, indehiscent pulpy fruit,
developed from mono or polycarpellary, superior
or inferior ovary with axile or parietal
placentation.
• In it, mesocarp alone is well developed and it
forms the succulent pulp in which seeds remain
embedded.
• Epicarp form a thin "skin" of the fruit. tomato,
banana, grape, sapota, Endocarp may be very
thin, or even absent. e.g., brinjal.

56. (iii) Pome
• Pome is, in fact, a highly specialized false fruit
because its succulent edible part is developed not
from the ovary, but from the fleshy receptacle of a
syncarpous, inferior ovary.
• The receptacle encloses the true fntits in its core.
• The 'skin' of the fruit is, therefore, not the epicarp
and the fleshy portion is not the mesocarp.
• pome is typical of Rosaceae.
• The common example is apple.

58. (iv) Pepo
• Pepo is a many-seeded, fleshy and often large-
sized fruit, formed from an inferior,
syncarpous ovary.
• It is, in fact, a specialized type of berry.
• The outer portion of its epicarp forms leathery
covering.
• Pepo is characteristic of Cucurbitaceae.
• e.g., melons, cucumbers.

61. (v) Hesperidium
• Hesperidium is a multi seeded, fleshy fruit, formed
from a multi camellary, syncarpous, superior ovary with
axile placentation.
• Its pericarp is differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp and
endocarp.
• Epicarp is leathery, with oil glands.
• Mesocarp is white and fibrous.
• Endocarp has numerous unicellular and fluid - filled
trichomes which project into the locules and form
characteristic segments.
• Endocarp is the edible part.
• e.g.. lemon, orange.

63. Aggregate fruits
• Aggregate fruit is a 'cluster fruit', formed from an
apocarpous pistil Of a single flower.
• So, it consists of a number of individual fruits.
• It may be an aggregate Of achenes. berries. follicles
or samaras.
• The term etaerio is mostly used to designate
Aggregate fruit .
• During fruit formation, each individual carpel
remains free and develops to a fruitlet.
• So, a flower gives rise to a cluster of small fruitlets.

64. • In some cases, the fruitlets are free from each other
so that a fruit represents a bunch of fruitlets (e.g.,
Polyalthia. Artabotrys).
• But, in others, the carpels unite together to form a
single massive fruit (e.g., Annona).
• Each small elevated area on the fruit of Annona
represent a carpel of immediately below it there
will be single seed.
• An aggregate fruit may be dehiscent or indehiscent.
• In Michelia, the fruit is an aggregate of follicles, in
strawberry, an aggregate of achenes, and in
Artaborrys an aggregate of berries

66. Multiple fruits
• Multiple fruit is a massive, fleshy, compound fruit,
formed from an entire inflorescence.
• It is formed by the fusion of the ovaries and other
floral parts (such as bracts, pedicels and
receptacles) of entire flowers of the inflorescence.
• Sorosis, syconus, coenocarpium, etc. are the
different types of multiple fruits.

67. • Sorosis is a composite fruit that develops from a
spike, spadix, or catkin type of inflorescence — e.g.,
Artocarpus, Morus.

68. Jack fruit (Sorosis)
• Jack fruit is an example of sorosis.
• The inflorescence in jack is unisexual.
• The female spike develops into the fruit.
• If the fruit is cut longitudinally into two halves, there is a long
central axis, which is the floral axis or peduncle.
• The sweet edible flakes represent the perianth of the flowers
which have become thick and succulent.
• Inside the edible portion, there is a membranous bag
containing a big seed.
• The bag represents the pericarp.
• Between the edible flakes, there are numerous flat,
elongated, whitish structures which are not edible.
• These are the sterile or unfertilized flowers.
• The hard projecting portions seen outside represent external
sheaths, through the centre of which pass the styles of the
flowers.

69. • Syconus is the multiple fruit that develops from a
hypanthodium type of inflorescence — e.g., Ficus.
• In this case, receptacle form a hollow succulent
cavity, opening out by a small apical pore.

70. • Coenocarpium is a multiple fruit formed by the
fusion of the ovaries, floral parts and receptacles of
many flowers.
• It has a fleshy axis — e.g., Ananas

71. Pine apple
• Pine apple is an example of Pine-apple
coenocarpium.
• The inflorescence axis becomes fleshy and all the
flowers fuse together.
• The inflorescence axis continues to grow beyond
the fruit and produces a few leaf-like bracts forming
a crown on the fruit.
• On the surface of the fruit numerous polygonal
areas are seen.
• Each of them represents a flower and the
corresponding bract.

74. SEED

76. • During seed formation, tertilized ovule undergoes a series Of development
and it becomes the seed.
• The two integuments of the ovule become the seed coat. The outer
integument is known as the testa, while the inner one, the tegmen.
• In many cases, the tegmen is completely fused with the testa.
• The fertilised egg develops into an embryo.
• Each embryo has three distinct portions, namely
(i) a rudimentary root portion, called the radicle that faces the micropyle,
(ii) a shoot portion known as the plumule, and
(iii) one or two flat, expanded structures called the cotyledons in between the
radicle and the plumule.
• These cotyledons are almost leaf-like.
• Plants, such as bean, pea and tamarind, have two cotyledons in their seeds
and so they are known dicotyledons or dicotyledonous plants.
• But, in paddy, maize, wheat, coconut, there is only a single cotyledon inside
the seed and so these plants are known as monocotyledons or
monocotyledonous plants.

80. • The food material required for the of the embryo is
not always stored in the endosperm.
• Sometimes, the food material is stored up in
cotyledons in the form of starch, protein, or oil.
• The cotyledons absorb all the nourishment, and
become thick and fleshy.
• Hence, there is no endosperm inside such seeds
and they are called non-endospermous seeds, e.g.,
bean, pea.
• seeds having endosperm are called endospermous
or albuminous seeds, - e.g., castor, wheat, date.
• All seeds have endosperm at the beginning, but it
may disappear as the seed matures.

83. • The chemical composition of the endosperm is not the
same in all plants.
• In castor seed, plenty of oil is stored up in the
endosperm and so the endosperm is oily as ill many oil
seeds.
• In paddy, wheat and other food grains, endosperm is
rich in starch' Such an endosperm is called mealy or
farinaceous.
• In coconut, kernel is tile is utilized by the developing
endosperm.
• But, in certain seeds like water-lily and pepper, even
after the seeds are fully formed, a small amount of
nucellus is left behind unused.
• This remaining portion of the nucellus is known as the
perisperm and seeds having it are described as
perispermous.

84. • Thus, based on storage centres of reserve food,
three main types of seeds can be recognized as
follows:
(i) Endospermous or albuminous seeds — e.g.,
castor, tamarind.
(ii) Non-endospermous or exalbuminous seeds —
e.g., peas, beans, grams.
(iii) Endospermic and perispermic seeds — e.g.,
black pepper, water-lilly.

85. A. Exalbuminous dicot seed (e.g., Pea)
• Pea seed is an exalbuminous dicot seed.
• It attaches to the fruit wall by a short stalk, called funiculus.
• At maturity the funiculus detaches from the seed, leaving a
scar on the seed surface, called hilum.
• Close to the hilum is the micropyle.
• It serves for the absorption of water during germination.
• Seed has a tough seed-coat, formed by the fusion of testa
and tegmen.
• Testa is the outer coat, and tegmen the inner one.
• These are developed from the integuments of the ovule.
• Seed coat has a longitudinal ridge, called raphe.

87. • The whole of the seed, enclosed within the seed coat,
is called kernel.
• There are two fleshy cotyledons, attached to the
embryonal axis.
• In the absence of endösperm the fleshy cotyledons
store food materials for the embryo.
• The tip of the embryonal axis is called plumule or
shoot primordium, and its base is called radicle or
root primordium.
• The portion of the embryonal axis, in between the
plumule and the cotyledonary node, is called epicotyl
(above cotyledons).
• The portion between the radicle and the cotyledonary
node is called hypocotyl (below cotyledons).

89. B. Albuminous monocot seed (e.g. rice)
• Most monocot seeds are albuminous.
• The grain of paddy is a typical example.
• Its outer covering or husk has two halves, namely, lemma and
palea.
• Inside the husk is a thin and brown coat, called bran.
• It is formed by the fusion of pericarp and seed coat.
• Micropyle and hilum are not clearly seen due to the presence of
pericarp.
• The large starchy endosperm forms the bulk of the grain.
• It is surrounded by a proteina- ceous sheath, called aleurone layer
• The embryo is seen basally on one side of the endosperm.
• The embryonal axis is differentiated into plumule and radicle.
• Plumule is surrounded by a protective Bran sheath. called
coleoptile (plumule sheath). and radicle by coleorhiza (root
sheath).

92. • In between the embryo and the endosperm is a
single cotyledon.
• It is modified as a shield- like absorptive and
secretory organ, called scutellum.
• It secretes enzymes to digest the endosperm
during seed germination.
• Scutellum is separated from the endosperm by an
epithelial layer.
• The part of the embryonal axis, lying in between
the coleoptile and the cotyledonary node, is
sometimes called mesocotyl.

96. Dispersal of fruits and seeds
• Plants produce large numbers of seeds.
• Far and wide dispersal of these seeds is essential for
the distribution and establishment of plants over
extensive geographical areas.
• Also, it enables the colonization of new areas,
reduces overcrowding in a given area, and
minimizes intraspecific and interspecific
competitions for light, air, water. minerals. etc.
• Some plants disperse their seeds by the explosive
bursting of their pods or capsules.
• In others, dispersal is carried out by external
agencies, such as wind, water and animals.

99. Dispersal by wind (anemochory or
anemospory)
• In order to facilitate easy dispersal by wind, fruits and
seeds must be made light. This is accomplished by
various specializations some of which are the following:
(i) Thin and light fruits and seeds — e.g., Orchids.
(ii) Hairy (cosmose) seeds, with tufts of delicate hairs -
e.g., Bombax, calotropiS, Alstonia, Gossypium
(iii)Winged fruits or seeds with lateral expansions.
Winged fruits are seen in Calycopteris, and winged
seeds in spathodea, Tecoma, Plumeria, etc.
(iV) Persistent feathery styles — e.g., Narvelia, Clematis.
• All these specializations enable fruits and seeds to float
in air and to parachute or drift with air movements.

106. Dispersal by water (hydrochory or
hydrospory)
• This is common in plants growing along sea-shores and river
banks.
• Fruits and seeds dispersed by water have invariably a thick
outer coat for protection from damage.
• In many cases, the pericarp contains air spaces so that the
fruits are rendered light and they can float easily and are
carried to considerable distances by water currents.
• In coconut and Gerbera, the pericarp has a fibrous portion
enclosing numerous air spaces.
• In Calophyllum, air is present between endocarp and seed,
thus making the fruits light.
• In water-lily, seeds are provided with a spongy aril.
• In lotus, thalamus itself gets detached and floats in water,
carrying the fruits.

109. Dispersal by animals (zoochory or
zoospory)
• Quite a number of fruits and seeds are dispersed by mamals
and birds.
• They are characterized by many features.
• In some cases, fruits are provided with spines and hooks.
• When animals brush against such plants the fruits cling to
their bodies and are thus carried to various places.
• The fruits of Tribulus have sharp spines on them and they
stick on to the feet of animals.
• Glandular hairs are found on many fruits.
• Their glands secrete a sticky juice which helps in dispersal.
• The fruits stick to the bodies of animals and are carried by
them.

110. • Some seeds are specially coloured in a deceptive
manner.
• Birds mistake these seeds for insects and carry them
away.
• Many fleshy, succulent fruits are edible.
• Birds and other animals eat the fleshy portion and drop
the seeds in various places.
• Birds swallow fruits and the seeds and excreted out.
• The seeds, however, do not suffer any damage since
they are protected by hard seed coats.
• In fact, the passage of the seeds through the alimentary
canal assists in their germination.
• Fleshy fruits usually develop taste, colour and aroma
only when they are ripe and the seeds are ready for
dispersal.

116. Dispersal by the explosive bursting of
fruits (autochory)
• In certain dry capsular fruits, the pericarp splits open
explosively with a sudden jerk.
• As a result, the seeds are shot out to some distance.
• The furits of rubber tree, Clitoria, Abrus, etc. explode
automatically, while those of Impatients, Oxalis, Viola, etc.
explode and twist on being touched.
• In legumes and Clitoria, the two valves coil round spirally thus
ejecting the seeds soon after dehiscence.
• Some plants keep their fruits under soil or water without
dispersing. This is called carpotropy.
• Maturation of such seeds under soil is called geocarpy (e.g.,
Arachis),
• and maturation under water is called hydrocarpy (e.g.,
Eichhornia, Linaria)