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Botany session 5
1.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Botany and Pharmacognosy Session 5
2.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Review Last week we covered: Flowers & Fertilisation
3.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 This Session During this session we will cover: Fruit & Seeds Fruit Dispersal Inhibitors
4.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Fruit & Seeds ā¢ Seed ā¢ A seed is a ripened plant ovule containing an embryo and normally capable of germinating to produce a new plant. ā¢ Fruit ā¢ A fruit is a ripened ovary with its seeds and any other structure closely associated with it. ā¢ Functions. ā¢ The functions of a fruit are: ā¢ To protect the developing seeds ā¢ To disperse the mature seeds
5.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Fruit & Seeds ā¢ Many seeds we refer to are actually fruit, eg corn, wheat, oat seeds. Carrot, parsnip and sunflower seeds are fruit containing one or two seeds. ā¢ Sometimes plants thought of as vegetables are actually fruit, eg broad beans, cucumber, tomato. A vegetable is the edible part of a plant other than the fruit or seed. Vegetables can be leaves, stems or roots of a plant.
6.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Fruit formation ā¢ When double fertilisation occurs the following happen: ā¢ The stigma, style, stamens, petals and sepals wither and usually drop off, although the dried and shrivelled sepals may persist. ā¢ The ovule ripens into a seed. The zygote forms an embryo, with a miniature root, a tiny seed and one or two baby or seed- leaves called cotyledons. The endosperm cell forms the endosperm tissue and the integuments (the outer two layers of the ovule) form the seed coats.
7.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Fruit formation ā¢ The ovary develops into a fruit. The ovary wall thickens to form the pericarp. The pericarp has three layers, outer, middle and inner, called the exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp respectively. The pericarp may become fleshy and succulent, or dry and hard. Examples of each are: the tomato fruit has a fleshy pericarp. The cherry has a thin, tough exocarp, a fleshy mesocarp and a hard, dry (stony) endocarp. The garden green pea when mature has a dry, hard pericarp.
8.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Fruit formation ā¢ In some plants other parts of the plant may grow to form part of the fruit. In an apple, the top part of the flower stalk, the receptacle, is swollen and fleshy and forms the edible, succulent part of the fruit. This is known as a false fruit. ā¢ In general, fruit development occurs after fertilisation, but in some species fruit can form without fertilisation. This gives rise to seedless fruit, such as bananas, navel oranges and pineapples. These are parthenocarpic fruit, (literally Ć«virgin fruitĆ).
9.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Types of fruit ā¢ There are three main types of fruit, simple, aggregate and multiple. Simple ā¢ A simple fruit is derived from the ovary of a flower with a single pistil, such as legumes, tomatoes, cranberries, stone fruit and the herb shepherds purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris. Aggregate ā¢ An aggregate fruit is derived from a single flower with many pistils and ovaries. Each of these develops into a small fruit which is joined tightly to other fruit from that flower to produce one large fruit, eg raspberries and blackberries.
10.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Types of fruit Multiple ā¢ A multiple fruit is derived from the ovaries of many closely associated flowers, e.g. the mulberry, fig, pineapple. Simple Aggregate Multiple
11.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Accessory fruits ā¢ Most fruits develop just from the ovary, but some fruits include peripheral structures such as the receptacle and the peduncle (the stalk of the inflorescence). These are accessory or false fruit. There are three main types of accessory fruit: ā¢ Simple-accessory. ā¢ An example is the apple where the fruit includes the swollen receptacle. ā¢ Aggregate-accessory. ā¢ An example is the strawberry, where the fruit is derived from many pistils on the same flower as well as its receptacle. ā¢ Multiple-accessory. ā¢ An example is the pineapple where the fruit includes the receptacles as well as the peduncle.
12.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Simple fruits ā¢ There are two main kinds of simple fruits, simple fleshy fruits and simple dry fruits. Simple Fleshy Fruits ā¢ Simple fleshy fruits are fruits with fleshy, succulent and often juicy pericarps. ā¢ Simple fleshy fruits include drupes and berries. A citrus fruit is a form of simple fleshy fruit called an hesperidium. It is a type of berry with a tough, leathery rind.
13.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Simple fruits Simple Dry Fruits ā¢ Simple dry fruits have woody or papery pericarps. Dry fruits which split open to disperse several or many seeds are dehiscent. ā¢ Dehiscent fruit include legumes such as beans and peas which split open down two sides, and capsules such as daffodils, portulaca and poppies. ā¢ Other dehiscent fruit are follicles which split down one side only, such as Hakea and Grevillea. ā¢ Dry fruit which do not split open and usually have only one seed are indehiscent. ā¢ Example: grains and nuts.
14.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Checkpoint!
15.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Seeds ā¢ A seed develops from an ovule after double fertilisation Function ā¢ The function of a seed is: ā¢ To reproduce the parent species whilst allowing for genetic variation and change ā¢ To survive adverse seasons ā¢ To disperse the parent species to a new location ā¢ To protect the embryo until the correct time for germination ā¢ To provide food and nutrients for the embryo during dormancy and germination
16.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Seed formation Step 1 ā¢ The zygote forms an embryo. The embryo consists of a miniature shoot, the plumule, a tiny root, the radicle and one or two seed leaves called cotyledons. The cotyledons supply food to the embryo. Monocotyledon embryos have one seed leaf whilst dicotyledon embryos have two cotyledons.
17.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Seed formation Step 2 ā¢ The endosperm cell forms the endosperm tissue. In most seeds the embryo develops using food from the endosperm. When the seed is mature the endosperm disappears as the food reserve has either been used up, or what has not been used has been transferred to the cotyledons. ā¢ These seeds are called non-endospermic seeds. ā¢ Example: Peas and beans ā¢ In endospermic seeds the embryo remains surrounded by the endosperm, which contains nutrients and starch. The bulk of the volume of the seed is the starchy endosperm. ā¢ Example: Monocotyledon cereal grains such as wheat, rice and sweet corn
18.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Seed formation Step 3 ā¢ The integuments form the seed coat, the testa. Step 4 ā¢ In most seeds the nucellus disintegrates.
19.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Seed formation ā¢ Thus a mature seed is an embryo with a food reserve. The food is stored in either the cotyledon/s or the endosperm. This reserve enables the embryo to grow rapidly when the seed germinates until the seedling is able to produce its own food by photosynthesis. ā¢ Mature seeds are dry. When the seeds have fully developed the parent plant shuts off the water supply to the seeds so that they dry out and become dormant. This enables the embryos to survive until conditions become favourable for germination. This may be for one season or for many years. Remember the old saying: One yearĆs seeds equal seven yearsĆ weeds!
20.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Fruit and seed dispersal ā¢ After flowering the ovary changes into a fruit and the fertilised ovules develop into seeds. These provide the next generation of that plant. ā¢ If these seeds were to germinate where the parent plant is growing there would be overcrowding, with too much competition for light and water. ā¢ This would result in the death of too many young plants. In order to avoid this plants have developed strategies which enable the dispersal of fruits and seeds far from the parent plant. ā¢ Fruits and seeds may be dispersed actively or passively.
21.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Active dispersal ā¢ The fruits are adapted to forcefully expel the seeds so that they are sent some distance from the parent plant. ā¢ The ripe fruit opens with sharp movements which scatter the seeds. ā¢ Many legumes disperse their seeds in this manner. The pod splits into halves down two sides, the two halves curl back suddenly and flick out the seeds. ā¢ Sometimes this is so forceful that it can be heard. Many dry dehiscent plants scatter their seeds in similar fashion.
22.
Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Passive dispersal ā¢ External agents such as wind, water and animals disperse seeds away from the plants
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Ā© Copyright PCNM
2011 Wind dispersal ā¢ Seeds dispersed by wind are typically small, light and produced in large quantities. ā¢ Many have wings or feathers to increase their buoyancy. They can be carried by the wind for long distances. ā¢ Cotton seeds have hairs so they can be blown in the wind. These hairs are used to produce cotton. ā¢ Dandelion seeds have a little parachute attached to them to aid in dispersal by the wind. ā¢ Some plants disperse their seeds with the aid of samaras which are winged fruit. A samara is a flattened wing of fibrous, papery tissue developed from the ovary wall. ā¢ Maples, elms and the Tipuana tipu tree produce samara. ā¢ Spinifex produces clusters of dried fruit which roll along the ground when the wind blows and the seeds are dispersed
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2011 Water dispersal ā¢ Some fruit and seeds float on water. They are then carried away from the parent plant by the water currents. When they reach suitable land the seeds can germinate and the new plants grow. ā¢ Coconuts are dispersed in this manner. ā¢ Water lily fruit have membranous envelopes containing air to give them buoyancy. ā¢ Seeds from plants growing in flood prone areas can usually survive short term immersion and the seeds are spread at flood times.
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2011 Animal dispersal ā¢ Many fruit and seeds are adapted for distribution by animals, including humans. ā¢ Many fruit are fleshy, brightly coloured juicy and scented. Animals are attracted to them for food. ā¢ The seeds may be discarded and may thus be dispersed some distance from the parent plant. ā¢ If seeds are eaten they are usually not digested but excreted with the faeces, again often quite some distance from the parent plant.
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2011 Animal dispersal ā¢ Some seeds contain a sugary, nectar-like liquid which attracts ants. The ants carry the seeds away, extract the liquid and leave the seed. ā¢ Dry fruits may also be attractive to animals and birds. ā¢ Nuts are an example. ā¢ Many Australian native plants produce small, dry seed. ā¢ Ants collect them and store them underground. The seeds are thus protected from fire and inclement weather and may still be viable after several years.
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2011 Animal dispersal ā¢ Other fruits and seeds are adapted for attachment to birds and animals for dispersal. ā¢ These adaptations can be hooks, barbs or sticky seed coats. ā¢ They attach to the fur or hair of animals, the clothing of humans or to birds and may be carried some distance before their removal. ā¢ Other seeds are carried in soil attached to animals feet or humans shoes. ā¢ Humans play a large role in dispersing fruit and seeds. Some of this dispersal is unintended but much is deliberate
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2011 Checkpoint!
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2011 Seed Germination ā¢ Seeds are usually very dry when they are shed by the parent plant, with less than ten percent water content. ā¢ These seeds are alive but in a state of a very slow rate of metabolism. ā¢ Seeds cannot remain alive indefinitely but can remain viable for quite some time, depending on the species of plant. ā¢ Viability can be extended by keeping seeds dry and cool, away from light and pests.
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2011 Dormancy ā¢ When seeds encounter favourable environmental conditions most of them germinate. ā¢ However, some do not. Those that are not non-viable are dormant. ā¢ Dormancy is an inability to germinate under favourable conditions. It is considered a survival tactic, and is an internal characteristic. ā¢ Many Western Australian plants produce seed which remains dormant, especially over the long, dry summer. When the winter rains commence these seeds germinate.
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2011 There are two main mechanisms of dormancy: ā¢ Hard, impermeable seed. The hard seed coats prevent entry of water or oxygen necessary for germination. These hard seeds remain dormant until the seed coat is weakened or broken. ā¢ Fire can crack seed coats, which allows dormancy to break. ā¢ The native plants Kennedia, Chorizema and Acacia seeds react in this way. ā¢ Other plants, such as Banksia and hakea, require the heat of fire to release the seeds from the mature fruit. ā¢ In desert-type conditions seeds are abraded against sand, which weakens the hard coat so that water can enter. Seeds lying on the soil surface may be subjected to large daily temperature fluctuations. This cracks the seed coat, allowing water to enter
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2011 Chemical inhibitors ā¢ Chemical inhibitors may be present within or just outside the seed which prevent germination. ā¢ The chemicals must be removed before germination can take place. ā¢ The seeds of many desert plants will only germinate after there has been sufficient rain to wash away the chemical inhibitor. This means the seeds will only germinate after sufficient rain has fallen to enable the plant to grow to maturity. ā¢ Western Australian everlasting flowers, Schoenia and Rhodanthe species, are examples of plants which germinate in this manner. The chemical inhibitor adds survival value, preventing germination when conditions will not be able to support plant growth.
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2011 Chemical inhibitors ā¢ Many fleshy fruits contain chemical inhibitors which prevent the seeds from germinating within the fruit. The seeds need to be removed from the fruit before they can germinate, ensuring their dispersal before germination. ā¢ Tomatoes are an example of this type of chemical inhibition. ā¢ Many Western Australian native plants have seeds which are very difficult to germinate. Fire and heat damage them, water and chemicals do not induce germination. It was discovered in 1994 that these seeds would germinate after they had been exposed to the smoke, but not the heat, of burning native plants. ā¢ Examples of this include the feather flowers, Verticordia sp, and the native buttercup, Hibbertia.
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2011 General conditions for seed germination ā¢ Dormant seeds need special conditions to break their dormancy and begin germination. Seeds of different species have different requirements for germination depending on how those plants survive in nature. ā¢ Seeds that normally survive through winter require stratification before they can germinate. Stratification is exposure to lengthy periods of cold. Other seeds need conditions as listed above. ā¢ Other factors required to break dormancy are general to all seeds. These are: ā¢ Viable seeds ā¢ Sufficient water ā¢ Sufficient oxygen ā¢ Favourable temperatures
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2011 General conditions for seed germination ā¢ The correct amount of light; some seeds will only germinate in the dark, others require light for germination. Strelitzia will only germinate in the dark, Datura only in light. ā¢ Growing media suitable for the species
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2011 Types of germination ā¢ There are two main types of germination depending on whether the cotyledons are carried up above the soil or remain underground. Epigeal Germination. ā¢ In epigeal germination the hypocotyle grows rapidly when the seed germinates. The hypocotyl is the growing shoot between the seed and the cotyledons. ā¢ The cotyledons are thus carried above the soil surface and turn green. ā¢ Examples: The French bean, Phaseolus vulgaris
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2011 Types of germination
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2011 Types of germination Hypogeal Germination. ā¢ In hypogeal germination the region of shoot between the cotyledons and the first true leaves, the epicotyl, grows rapidly, leaving the cotyledons under the soil surface. ā¢ Examples: The green pea, Pisum sativum
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2011 Types of germination
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2011 Checkpoint!
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2011 Summary Today we have covered; ā¢ Fruit & Seeds ā¢ Fruit Dispersal ā¢ Inhibitors
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2011 Next Session We will cover: Ethnobotony
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2011 Preparation Brief Notes ā¢ Donāt forget to log on to the LMS and download and print off your brief notes and handouts for the next session.