Here are the key points about the scope of statistics: - Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting data. It deals with data related to populations and samples. - The scope of statistics is very wide as it is applicable to almost all areas of knowledge like physical, biological and social sciences. It helps in decision making in these fields. - Some key areas where statistics is applied include business, economics, demography, medicine, public health, psychology, education, agriculture etc. It aids research in these domains. - Statistical techniques help describe, analyze, make inferences and predictions based on data in various applications like surveys, experiments, censuses, records etc. This

1. Frequency distribution

2. DATA
The main sources for collection of medical statistics
are:
1. Experiments
2. Surveys
3. Records.
Nos. 1 and 2 are specially applied to generate data
needed for specific purposes while the records
provide ready-made data for routine and
continuous information.

3. Experiments
• Experiments are performed in the laboratories of
physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology and
clinical pathology or in the hospital wards for
investigations and fundamental research.
• The data collected with specific objective by one
or more workers are compiled and analyzed.
• The results are made use of in preparation of
dissertations, theses and scientific papers of
publication in scientific journals and books.

4. Surveys-definition
Surveys are carried out for
epidemiological studies in the field by
trained teams to find the incidence or
prevalence of health or disease
situations in a community such as
incidence of malaria or prevalence of
leprosy.

5. Records
Records are maintained as a routine in registers or
books over a long period of time for various
purposes such as for vital statistics— births,
marriages and deaths and for illnesses in hospitals.
• Data thus collected, are made use of in
demography (population studies) and public
health practice.
• Regular administrative machinery is necessary to
record or register the different events.

6. Statistical data -Qualitative and
quantitative
-
Qualitative (or Discrete) Data
In such data there is no notion of magnitude or
size of the characteristic or attribute as the
same cannot be measured.
They are classified by counting the individuals
having the same characteristic or attribute and
not by measurement.
There is only one variable, i.e. the number of
persons and not the characteristic.

7. Qualitative (or Discrete) Data
Persons with the same characteristic are counted to
form specific groups or classes such as attacked,
escaped, died, cured, relieved, vaccinated, males,
young, old, treated, not treated, on drug, on
placebo, etc.
Qualitative data are discrete in nature such as
number of deaths in different years,
population of different towns,
persons with different blood groups in a population
and so on.

8. Quantitative (or Continuous) Data
In statistical language any character,
characteristic or quality that varies is called
variable.
The quantitative data have a magnitude.
The characteristics is measured either on an
interval or on a ratio scale.
There are two variables—the characteristics
such as height and the frequency.

9. Height varies from person to person, it may be 150
cm in one and 160 cm in another person of the
same age and sex.
The quantitative data obtained from characteristic
variable are also called continuous data
Some of the statistical methods employed in
analysis of such data are mean, range, standard
deviation, coefficient of variation and correlation
coefficient.

10. Class limit, class interval and class
frequency
• Class limit are the lowest and highest values that
can be included in the class.
• Class intervals – the differences between the
upper and lower limit of a class is known as class
interval of that class.
• In the class 100-200 the class interval is 100 i.e
200 minus 100
• Class frequency
• The number of observation correspond to a
particular class is known as class frequency

11. Class midpoint or class mark
• It is the value lying half way between the
lower and upper class limits of a class interval.

12. Data collected and compiled from
experimental work, records and
surveys should be accurate and
complete. They must be checked
for accuracy and adequacy before
processing further.

13. METHODS OF PRESENTATION
There are two main methods of presenting
frequencies of a variable. character or a
variable.
• Tabulation
• Drawing

14. Tabulation
• A table is a systematic arrangement of
statistical data in the columns and rows.
• Rows are horizontal arrangement
• Columns are vertical arrangement.
• Tables make it possible for the analyst to
present a huge mass of data in a detailed
orderly manner within a minimum of space

15. Significance of tabulation
• It simplifies the complex data
• It facilitates comparison
• It gives identity to data
• It reveals pattern

16. Parts of a table
• Table number
• Title of the table
• Caption
• Stub
• Body
• Head note
• Foot note

17. Format of table
Table number
Title
Head note
Stub heads captions Total
 Stub entries Column
Heads
Column
Heads
Rows Stub entries Cell Cell
 Stub entries Body
Total ------ ----- -----
Foot notes Table number

18. Table number
• Each table must be numbered.
• Different practice with regard to place where
the number is to be given.
• It can be in centre, at the top above the title,
inside of the title, or in the bottom of the
table on the left hand side.
• If space permits the table number must be
centered

19. Title of the table
• Every table must be given suitable title.
• The title is the description of the content of
the table.
• Title should be precise clear and self
explanatory.
• It should be in the form of a series of phrases
rather than complete sentences.
• Lettering must be prominent of any letter on
the table

20. caption
• Caption refers to the column heading.
• Under a column heading there may be sub
heads.
• If the different columns are mentioned with
different unit, the units must be mentioned
with the caption.
• Caption must be shown in small letters. This
helps in saving space

21. Stub
• It is designation of the rows or rows heading.
• They are at the extreme left.
• Stubs are usually wider than column heading.
• It should be kept as narrow as possible

22. Body
• The body of the table contains the numerical
information.
• This is the most vital part of the table.
• Datas are arranged according to description of
caption and stubs.

23. Head note
• It is a brief explanatory statement applying to
all or a major part of the material in the table.
• It is placed below the point centred and
enclosed in brackets.
• It is used to explain certain points which is
not mentioned in the caption and stubs.

24. Foot note
• Anything in the table which the reader may
find difficult to understand from the title,
caption and stubs should be explained in the
foot notes.
• If it is needed they are placed directly below
the body of the table.
• To clarify anything in the table.

25. Various system of identifying the
footnotes
• Numbering them consecutively with small
numbers 1,2,3,4 or letters a,b,c,d
• Another system identifies the first note with
one star *
• Second footnote with two stars**
• Third foot notes with three stars and so on.
• Sometimes instead of star another sign dagger
is used ϯ. Better to use small letters.

26. General rules of tabulation
• The table should suit the size of the paper usually
with more rows than columns.
• In all tables the caption and stubs are arranged in
the systematic order.
• Alphabetical –arrangements according to
alphabet.
• Chronological- arrangement according to time
[historical data] [ review of literature ]
• Geographical- arrangement of data in certain
territorial units such as countries, cities and
districts.

27. • Conventional or arrangement in customary
order.
• Items arranged according to size, the largest
item given first and smallest in the last.
• This arrangement may be reversed , if
necessary.
• The point of measurement should be clearly
defined eg income in rupees.
General rules of tabulation

28. • Figures should be rounded off to avoid
unnecessary details in the table and a foot
note to this effect should be given.
• Figures taken to nearest rupees and paise are
eliminated.
• Table should not be overloaded with details.
• Percentages and ratio are sometimes called
derived statistics.
General rules of tabulation

29. • Indicate a zero quantity by zero and not by 0
to indicate the information which is not
available. [ not available or by - ]
• Abbreviations should be avoided especially in
titles and headings.
• Do not use ditto mark. If figure is repeated
show it each time. A ditto mark can be
mistaken as number 11.
General rules of tabulation

30. Types of tables

31. i]Simple or one way table

32. ii] Two way table

33. iii]Higher order table
• When three or more characteristics are
represented in the same table, such table is
called a high order table.
• Number of characteristics represented
increases the table become more and more
confusing.

34. 2. General and special purpose table
• It is also known as reference table or
repository tables.
• Tables published by government belongs to it.
• Special purpose table are also known as
summary table provide information for
particular discussion.
• They are also called derivative tables because
they derive from general table.

35. Rules for making a frequency
distribution table
• The class or group interval between the
groups should not be too broad or too narrow,
e.g. grouping of age should not be yearly or 20
yearly, but 5 yearly.
• Too large a group will omit the details and too
small will defeat the purpose of making the
date concise.

36. • The number of groups or classes should not
be too many or too few but be ordinarily
between 6 and 16 depending on the details
necessary and the size of sample.
• The class interval should be same throughout
such as 10 mm in observations of the systolic
blood pressure from 80–160 mmHg, the
groups in ascending order will be 80–89, 90–
99, …, 150–159.

37. • The headings must be clear such as “height” in
inches or in centimeters,“age” in years or months,
etc. If the data are expressed as rates, mention
per cent or per thousand.
• The rates and proportions, if given the actual
number in the group must also be noted, which
may be done in parenthesis.
• Groups should be tabulated in ascending or
descending order, from the lowest value in the
range to the highest such as pulse rate 61–65,
66–70, …, 106–110.

38. • If certain data are omitted or excluded
deliberately, the reasons for the same should
be given.
• After classwise or groupwise tabulation, the
frequencies of a characteristic can be
presented by two kinds of drawings: Graphs
and diagrams. They may be shown either by
lines and dots or by figures.

39. The drawings are meant for the nonstatistical
minded people who want to study the relative
values or frequencies of persons or events. For
the statistical-mined persons, they are for quick
eye readings.

40. Ascorbic acid vs. 0.05 M Iodine
SN WEIGHT OF
ASCORBIC ACID (g)
BURETTE READING(ml)
INITIAL FINAL
VOLUME OF
TITRANT(ml)
INDICATOR END-POINT
Starch solution Appearance of
pale blue color

42. • EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT THE
SCOPE OF STATISTICS.
• DRAW A TABLE FOR TITRATION OF
0.1 M SODIUM HYDROXIDE VS HCL 4