The document provides information on protein purification techniques including: 1) Primary techniques involve breaking open cells, fractionating proteins based on size or charge, and salting out using ammonium sulfate. 2) Chromatography techniques separate proteins based on properties like binding interactions, charge, size, and isoelectric point using columns. 3) The final purity required depends on the application, with 95-99% purity needed for assays and over 99% for therapeutic use. Analytical techniques confirm identity and purity of the purified protein.

1. Protein Purification

2. Levels of Structure in Protein
• Primary: A description of all covalent bonds. The
sequence of AA residues
• Secondary: particularly stable arrangements of AA
giving rise to recurring structural patterns.
• Tertiary: All aspects of the 3D folding of a polypeptide.
• Quaternary: The spatial arrangement of multisubunits
protein

3. Protein Purification
• Crude extract: breaking cells, by osmosis
lysis or homogenization.
• Fractionation: separate proteins into
different fraction based on size of charge.
• Salting out: The solubility of proteins is
lowered at high salt concentration.
Ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4).
• Dialysis is a procedure to separate
proteins from solvents

4. Guidelines for protein purification
• Define objectives
• Define properties of target protein and
critical contaminants
• Minimize the number of steps
• Use a different technique at each step
• Develop analytical assays
Adapted from: Protein Purification Handbook. Amersham Biosciences. 18-1132-29, Edition AC

5. How pure should my protein be?
Application Required Purity
Therapeutic use, in vivo
Extremely high > 99%
studies
Biochemical assays, X-ray
High 95-99%
crystallography
N-terminal sequencing,
antigen for antibody Moderately high < 95%
production, NMR

6. Separation of proteins based on
physical and chemical properties
• Solubility
• Binding interactions
• Surface-exposed hydrophobic residues
• Charged surface residues
• Isoelectric Point
• Size and shape

7. Basic scheme of protein purification
From: Protein Purification Handbook. Amersham Biosciences. 18-1132-29, Edition AC

8. Protein preparation, extraction,
clarification
Cell growth,
protein over-
expression
Cell lysis
Removal of
cell debris

9. Expression of Target Protein in E. coli
Plasmid with dinI
DinI
transformation expression
E. coli

10. Protein isolation, concentration, and
stabilization
Reversible
precipitation
with salt or
organic
molecules

11. Fractional precipitation of proteins
Discard pellet
Precipitate
contaminants
Add Add Precipitant,
Centrifugation,
Precipitant, Chromatography
Discard supernatant,
Centrifugation Resuspend protein
Precipitate Discard
protein of supernatant,
interest Resuspend
protein

12. Intermediate Purification
Liquid
chromatography
(lower resolution,
lower cost)

13. Types of liquid chromatography
Adsorption Chromatography
– Proteins bind to stationary phase
– Proteins eluted by altering mobile phase
– Includes: affinity, hydrophobic interaction, ion exchange, and
chromatofocusing
Solution Phase Chromatography
– Proteins do not bind to stationary phase
– Progress of proteins through column impeded by matrix of
stationary phase
– Includes: size exclusion chromatography (aka gel filtration)

14. Types of liquid chromatography
Adsorption Resin Chemical Equilibrate Elution
Type Separation By Names of Resins
or Solution Group With With
Metal, Ig,
Low High Hydroxyapatite,
Affinity Adsorption Specific Ligand Ligand Binding
[Ligand] [Ligand] Heparin Sepharose,
Any ligand
Butyl sepharose, Octyl
Hydrophobic Hydrophobic Hydrophobic
Adsorption High Salt Low Salt sepharose, Phenyl
Interaction Groups Effect sepharose
Positively charged Coulombic Mono-Q, Source-Q,
Anion Exchange Adsorption Low Salt High Salt
ions Interacions DEAE
Negatively charged Coulombic Mono-S, Source-S,
Cation Exchange Adsorption Low Salt High Salt
ions Interacions CM
Negatively charged pH
Chromatofocusing Adsorption Isoelectric Point Poly-buffer Mono-P
ions gradient
Size Exclusion Solution Size / Shape of Sephacryl #,
Pores Same Buffer
(gel filtration) Phase Protein Sephadex #

15. Polishing steps
Liquid
chromatography
(higher resolution,
higher cost)
From: Protein Purification Handbook. Amersham Biosciences. 18-1132-29, Edition AC

16. Liquid chromatography techniques
advantages and disadvantages
Type of
Advantages Disadvantages Resolution
Chromatography
Resins and ligands
Affinity Quick and specific
can be expensive Low to Medium
Can be used directly Relatively low
Hydrophobic
Interaction
from ammonium resolution and binding Low to Medium
sulfate precipitation capacity
Protein solution must
Ion Exchange Versatile resin choices
start at low [salt] Medium to High
pH gradient can be
Chromatofocusing High resolution
harsh for protein High
Distinct from other
techniques, Can be
Size Exclusion used analytically or for
Long run time Low to High
buffer exchange

17. Protein detection methods
• SDS-PAGE
– Visual confirmation
• UV Spectrophotometry
– Absorbance @ 280 nm
– Due mostly to Trp
– [Protein] calculated with Beer’s Law
• Colorimetric Techniques
– Color change proportional to [protein]
– Bradford, Lowry, BCA
J.S.C. Olson and John Markwell. Current Protocols in Protein Science (2007) 3.4.1-3.4.29

18. Final steps in purification
• Check purity by detection methods
• Test for interfering contaminants
– Nucleases
– Proteases
– Toxins
• Concentrate your protein
– Precipitation
– Centricons
– Small column with high binding capacity
• Choose a storage buffer and storage conditions
– Consider intended use of protein
– Stabilizing additives
– Flash freeze protein and store at -80o C
• Confirm identity of purified protein
– Mass spectrometry
– N-terminal sequencing
– Analytical assays

19. Basic scheme of protein purification
Cell growth, Liquid
protein over- chromatography
expression Reversible (lower resolution,
precipitation lower cost)
Cell lysis with salt or
Removal of organic
cell debris molecules
Liquid
chromatography
(higher resolution,
higher cost)

20. Separation Processes that can be Used
to Fractionate Proteins
Separation Process Basis of Separation
Precipitation ammonium sulfate solubility
polyethyleneimine (PEI) charge, size
isoelectric solubility, pI
Chromatography gel filtration (SEC) size, shape
ion exchange (IEX) charge, charge distribution
hydrophobic interaction(HIC) hydrophobicity
DNA affinity DNA binding site
immunoaffinity (IAC) specific epitope
chromatofocusing pI
Electrophoresis gel electrophoresis (PAGE) charge, size, shape
isoelectric focusing (IEF) pI
Centrifugation sucrose gradient size shape, density
Ultrafiltration ultrafiltration (UF) size, shape

21. Protein Purification: Column Chromatography
• The expansion of the
protein band in the mobile
phase is caused by
separation of proteins with
different properties and by
diffusional spreading. As
the length of the column
increases, the resolution
of two types of protein
improves.
• Rate is decreased and
resolution can decline
because of the diffusional
spreading

22. Ion-exchange Chromatography
• Cation exchangers
contain negatively
charged polymer
• Anion exchangers
contain positively
charged polymer.
• Is effected by pH

23. Size-Exclusion Chromatography
• Also called gel
filtration: The column
matrix is a cross-
linked polymer with
pores of selected size.
• Larger protein migrate
faster than smaller
ones because they
are too large to enter
the pores

24. Affinity Chromatography
• Separate protein by
their binding
specificities. The
proteins retained on
the column are those
that bind specifically
to a ligand cross-
linked to the beads.
Proteins that do not
binds to ligands are
washed through to
column

25. Electrophoresis
• Separation of porteins is
based on the migration of
charged protein in an electric
field
• The migration of a protein in a
gel during electrophoresis is a
function of its size and shape
µ = V/E = Z/ f
µ : electrophoretic mobility
V: velocity; E: electrical potential
Z: net charge; f: frictional
coefficient

26. SDS-PAGE: Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS)
Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis
• SDS binds to most proteins probably by
hydrophobic interaction. One SDS for every two
AAs, Thus, each protein has a similar charge-
to-mass ratio.
• Coomassie blue stains protein. Western blot

27. Estimating the Molecular Weight of a Protein

28. Isoelectric Focusing
• pI of a protein: net
charge=0
• A pH gradient is
established by
allowing a mixture of
organic acids and
bases (ampholytes).
Protein migrates until
it reaches the pH that
matches its pI

29. Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis
• Separates proteins
of identical MW
that differ in pI or
proteins with
similar pI but
different MW.

30. Activity Vs. Specific Activity
• Unit: amount of
enzyme causing
transformation of 1 µ
mole of substrate per
min. at 25 oC under
optimal conditions
• Activity: Total units of
enzyme (U).
• Specific activity:
(U/mg) of total protein

31. Bacterial expression vectors

32. Bacterial expression vectors

33. Mammalian expression vector