The five main forms of interaction between population are: 1. Mutualism 2. Commensalism 3. Parasitism 4. Competition 5. Predation.
Dr. K. Rama Rao
Govt. Degree College
TEKKALI; Srikakulam Dt. A. P
Phone: 9010705687
Density independent and density dependent factors can limit population growth. Density independent factors like natural disasters, temperature, sunlight and human activities affect populations regardless of density. Density dependent factors like competition, predation, disease and crowding only impact populations at high densities. For example, yellow perch populations in Lake Winnipeg are limited by density independent factors like drought, which could lower water levels and temperatures, as well as density dependent factors like predation from northern pike and walleye when populations are high.
Ecological Interactions - Mutualism, Commensalism & NeutralismRahul M. Prathap
Ecological interactions are the effects an organism have on another in an ecosystem. This slide describes Mutualism, Commensalism and Neutralism with examples.
This document discusses several topics related to population growth and biological communities, including:
1. Biotic potential and environmental resistance, which influence population growth rates.
2. Limiting factors that determine an organism's tolerance limits and critical factors.
3. Key properties of biological communities like productivity, diversity, complexity, resilience, and structure.
4. Ecological succession and the process of ecosystems changing over time.
5. Various types of ecological problems on a global scale like pollution, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate change.
This document introduces the key concepts of ecology, including:
1) Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with their environment and each other.
2) Organisms are organized into levels ranging from cells to the biosphere.
3) The environment consists of biotic and abiotic factors that surround organisms.
4) All organisms are interdependent and interact through competition, predation, and nutrient recycling.
This document outlines learning objectives for understanding communities and ecosystems in biology. It defines key terms like species, habitat, population, community, ecosystem, ecology, autotroph, heterotroph, consumers, detritivores, saprotrophs, food chain, food web, and trophic level. It describes constructing food webs and chains, and explaining energy and nutrient flow between trophic levels and how energy is lost at each transfer. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi are identified as recycling nutrients in ecosystems.
Species diversity is defined as the number of different species present in an ecosystem and their relative abundances. There are two components of species diversity: species richness, which is the number of different species present, and species evenness, which is how similar the abundances of each species are. Tropical rainforests and coral reefs have very high species diversity due to favorable environmental conditions that allow for many specialized species and resilience to disturbances. However, human activities like habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species, and extinctions are major threats and causing accelerated extinction rates. Conservation efforts focus on both in-situ and ex-situ methods to protect biodiversity.
Ecological concepts are introduced and described in the document. The document discusses 7 key ecological concepts:
1) Levels of biological organization ranging from genes to landscapes.
2) The definition of native species and their importance in natural ecosystems.
3) The concept of keystone species that have disproportionate influence on ecosystems.
4) The concept of population viability and extinction thresholds related to amount of habitat.
5) Ecological resilience and the ability of ecosystems to withstand disturbance and return to stability.
6) Disturbances as events that cause changes to ecological systems, both natural and human-induced.
7) Connectivity and fragmentation, and their effects on organism movement between habitat patches.
Density independent and density dependent factors can limit population growth. Density independent factors like natural disasters, temperature, sunlight and human activities affect populations regardless of density. Density dependent factors like competition, predation, disease and crowding only impact populations at high densities. For example, yellow perch populations in Lake Winnipeg are limited by density independent factors like drought, which could lower water levels and temperatures, as well as density dependent factors like predation from northern pike and walleye when populations are high.
Ecological Interactions - Mutualism, Commensalism & NeutralismRahul M. Prathap
Ecological interactions are the effects an organism have on another in an ecosystem. This slide describes Mutualism, Commensalism and Neutralism with examples.
This document discusses several topics related to population growth and biological communities, including:
1. Biotic potential and environmental resistance, which influence population growth rates.
2. Limiting factors that determine an organism's tolerance limits and critical factors.
3. Key properties of biological communities like productivity, diversity, complexity, resilience, and structure.
4. Ecological succession and the process of ecosystems changing over time.
5. Various types of ecological problems on a global scale like pollution, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate change.
This document introduces the key concepts of ecology, including:
1) Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with their environment and each other.
2) Organisms are organized into levels ranging from cells to the biosphere.
3) The environment consists of biotic and abiotic factors that surround organisms.
4) All organisms are interdependent and interact through competition, predation, and nutrient recycling.
This document outlines learning objectives for understanding communities and ecosystems in biology. It defines key terms like species, habitat, population, community, ecosystem, ecology, autotroph, heterotroph, consumers, detritivores, saprotrophs, food chain, food web, and trophic level. It describes constructing food webs and chains, and explaining energy and nutrient flow between trophic levels and how energy is lost at each transfer. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi are identified as recycling nutrients in ecosystems.
Species diversity is defined as the number of different species present in an ecosystem and their relative abundances. There are two components of species diversity: species richness, which is the number of different species present, and species evenness, which is how similar the abundances of each species are. Tropical rainforests and coral reefs have very high species diversity due to favorable environmental conditions that allow for many specialized species and resilience to disturbances. However, human activities like habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species, and extinctions are major threats and causing accelerated extinction rates. Conservation efforts focus on both in-situ and ex-situ methods to protect biodiversity.
Ecological concepts are introduced and described in the document. The document discusses 7 key ecological concepts:
1) Levels of biological organization ranging from genes to landscapes.
2) The definition of native species and their importance in natural ecosystems.
3) The concept of keystone species that have disproportionate influence on ecosystems.
4) The concept of population viability and extinction thresholds related to amount of habitat.
5) Ecological resilience and the ability of ecosystems to withstand disturbance and return to stability.
6) Disturbances as events that cause changes to ecological systems, both natural and human-induced.
7) Connectivity and fragmentation, and their effects on organism movement between habitat patches.
This document summarizes key concepts in population ecology, including factors that influence population size and distribution patterns. Populations can exhibit clumping, uniform, or random dispersion patterns depending on resource availability and other factors. A population's size is determined by the balance between birth and death rates, which are influenced by biotic potential and environmental resistance. Humans can impact ecosystems through activities like habitat degradation and overharvesting. Sustainable practices can be informed by principles seen in nature, such as nutrient recycling and population control.
This document discusses key concepts in population ecology, including population size, density, distribution, growth patterns, biotic potential, carrying capacity, r-selected and K-selected species, environmental resistance, and predator-prey cycles. It provides examples and explanations of exponential and logistic growth curves, and compares characteristics of r-selected and K-selected species.
Ecological interactions can be classified as intraspecific, between individuals of the same species, or interspecific, between individuals of different species. They can also be classified as harmonious or inharmonious. Competition is an example of an inharmonious interspecific interaction where individuals exploit the same resources, harming all participants. Protocooperation, mutualism, and commensalism are examples of harmonious interspecific interactions where either both species benefit or one benefits without affecting the other. Predatism is an inharmonious interaction where one individual kills another for food.
Factors that regulate population ppt presentation Mariel Marjes
The document discusses factors that regulate population sizes, including density-dependent factors like competition and density-independent factors like natural disasters. It defines important terminology like population, community, and biotic factors. It also describes two life history strategies species may evolve under different environmental pressures - r-selected species that thrive in unstable environments and K-selected species adapted to stable, competitive environments.
This document discusses national parks and biosphere reserves, which are areas designated for conservation. It provides details on:
- National parks aim to conserve scenery, natural features, and wildlife by prohibiting private rights and certain activities. They range in size from 0.04 to 3,162 km2.
- Biosphere reserves represent undisturbed ecosystems and include core, buffer, and other zones. They are established under UNESCO's MAB program to conserve biodiversity and genetic diversity.
- India has many national parks across its states that protect important ecosystems, as well as 10 designated biosphere reserves that qualify criteria around representation, genetic diversity, and research opportunities.
General Botany Group four presentation.
This presentation focus on so many biological related topics. It primarily focus on conservation of life in any biodiversity.
This document discusses ecological niches and the relationships between organisms and their environments. It defines key terms like ecology, biotic and abiotic factors, and ecological niche. An ecological niche refers to an organism's role and position in its environment, including what it eats, habitat requirements, and tolerance of environmental conditions. The document contrasts fundamental and realized niches, and explains Hutchinson's niche concept and Gause's competitive exclusion principle. Examples are provided of how different species occupy different niches to avoid competition, such as various finch species on the Galapagos Islands. Habitat is defined as the actual environment an organism lives in, while niche refers more to the specific requirements that allow it to survive and reproduce.
The document discusses biodiversity hotspots, with a focus on India and the state of Kerala. It defines genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity, and explains the criteria for designating areas as biodiversity hotspots. It notes that 25 major hotspots represent only 1.4% of the earth's land but contain 44% of plant and 35% of terrestrial vertebrate species. It provides details on the biodiversity found in India, particularly in Kerala, including the high levels of endemism among plants and animals. It also discusses the economic value of ecosystems in Kerala and conservation efforts underway.
An ecological niche describes how a species interacts with and fits into its environment, including obtaining resources like food and shelter, and reproducing. A niche encompasses all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. The fundamental niche is the full range of environmental conditions a species can tolerate without competition from other species. Species niches depend on factors like temperature, resources, and predators. Niches can overlap if species partition resources in non-competing ways, like dolphins and seals eating different types of fish.
This document summarizes key concepts in ecology. It defines ecology as the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It describes producers as organisms that use sunlight or chemical energy to produce food, including plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria. Consumers rely on producers and other organisms for food and include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Decomposers break down dead organic matter. Food chains and webs show how energy flows through ecosystems from producers to different trophic levels. Ecological pyramids illustrate the decrease in available energy and biomass at higher trophic levels. The document also discusses ecological interactions like competition, niches, predation, and symbiotic relationships between species.
This document defines and provides examples of symbiosis, which is a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms. There are three main types of symbiosis: mutualism, where both organisms benefit; commensalism, where one benefits and the other is unaffected; and parasitism, where one benefits and the other is harmed. Examples provided include relationships between acacia plants and ants, moray eels and cleaner fish, cattle and cattle egrets, and clown fish and sea anemones.
1. Species diversity refers to the number and variety of species in a given region. It takes into account both the number of species and how evenly abundant they are.
2. There are three main types of species: endemic, exotic, and cosmopolitan. Endemic species are restricted to a particular area while exotic species have been transported by humans.
3. Factors that affect species diversity include speciation, extinction, migration, habitat destruction, and the introduction of invasive species. Speciation occurs through geographic isolation or reductions in gene flow. Extinction can be caused by overharvesting, pollution, and habitat loss.
Population ecology is the science that studies changes in population size and composition, and identifies factors causing these changes. A population consists of all individuals of a species in a given area, and is characterized by its size, density, dispersion, births, deaths, and survivorship over time. Population dynamics examines how and why population size changes, influenced by density-dependent factors like resources and disease, and density-independent factors like weather. Populations typically follow an S-shaped logistic growth curve as they approach the carrying capacity of their environment.
Ecological pyramids graphically represent trophic structure and function in an ecosystem, with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex. There are pyramids of number, biomass, and energy. A pyramid of number shows the number of organisms per unit area at each trophic level, which can be upright or inverted. A pyramid of biomass represents the total biomass present at different trophic levels. A pyramid of energy shows the amount of energy at each trophic level, which is always upright based on the 10% law of energy transfer between levels. Limitations of ecological pyramids include not accounting for multiple feeding modes, detritus, or seasonal/daily variations.
Points on biomes,habitat,ecotone and their differentations.
also on terrestrial ,wetland,fresh water,marine habitat and their types .Explained much with pictures..so easy to remember and to take class .Hope this may help....
Productivity refers to the production of biomass per unit time and area. Gross productivity is the total gain, while net productivity is the gain remaining after respiratory loss. Primary productivity is energy captured by producers like plants, defined as gross primary productivity minus respiration. Secondary productivity refers to biomass gained by consumers. Factors like sunlight, temperature, water, nutrients influence productivity, with the most productive ecosystems having optimal conditions for plant growth.
This document discusses key concepts in ecology including the biosphere, ecosystems, trophic chains, and ecological factors. It begins by defining the biosphere as the global sum of all ecosystems, including the troposphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. It then explains ecosystem types from micro to macro and their parameters. Factors like species diversity and population sizes are qualitative and quantitative parameters. Trophic chains involve producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers and decomposers transmitting energy between trophic levels in food webs and chains. Ecological factors like optimum, pessimum and spectrum influence species distributions. In summary, the document outlines foundational ecological concepts and relationships between biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.
This document provides an overview of ecological concepts and principles of ecosystems. It defines ecology and describes the basic units of ecological systems from protoplasm to the biosphere. Key concepts discussed include populations, communities, ecosystems, food webs, and the abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems. Four principles of ecosystems are outlined: everything is related, everything must go somewhere, nature knows best, and there is no free lunch. Factors affecting ecosystems and environmental health are also summarized.
Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photosynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients and gains protection in return. The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare cases, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive structures.
Both species involved in the interaction are benefited. These interactions take place in three patterns:
Facultative mutualism – Species survive on their own under favorable conditions
Obligate mutualism – One species is dependent for survival on the other
Diffusive mutualism – One entity can live with multiple partners
These relationships have three purposes:
Defensive mutualism
Trophic mutualism
Dispersive mutualism
Plants and animals survive by protecting themselves and reproducing to propagate their species, passing on genetic information between generations. To cope with environmental changes, organisms form different relationships including competition over resources, predation where one organism eats another, coevolution where two species adapt due to changes in each other, and symbiosis where organisms live together to benefit or not harm one another. Populations of species can affect genetic diversity in ecosystems, and are influenced by birth/death rates, urbanization, climate change, and human activities. The environment has been disrupted by rapid human population growth causing changes to meet demands.
This document summarizes key concepts in population ecology, including factors that influence population size and distribution patterns. Populations can exhibit clumping, uniform, or random dispersion patterns depending on resource availability and other factors. A population's size is determined by the balance between birth and death rates, which are influenced by biotic potential and environmental resistance. Humans can impact ecosystems through activities like habitat degradation and overharvesting. Sustainable practices can be informed by principles seen in nature, such as nutrient recycling and population control.
This document discusses key concepts in population ecology, including population size, density, distribution, growth patterns, biotic potential, carrying capacity, r-selected and K-selected species, environmental resistance, and predator-prey cycles. It provides examples and explanations of exponential and logistic growth curves, and compares characteristics of r-selected and K-selected species.
Ecological interactions can be classified as intraspecific, between individuals of the same species, or interspecific, between individuals of different species. They can also be classified as harmonious or inharmonious. Competition is an example of an inharmonious interspecific interaction where individuals exploit the same resources, harming all participants. Protocooperation, mutualism, and commensalism are examples of harmonious interspecific interactions where either both species benefit or one benefits without affecting the other. Predatism is an inharmonious interaction where one individual kills another for food.
Factors that regulate population ppt presentation Mariel Marjes
The document discusses factors that regulate population sizes, including density-dependent factors like competition and density-independent factors like natural disasters. It defines important terminology like population, community, and biotic factors. It also describes two life history strategies species may evolve under different environmental pressures - r-selected species that thrive in unstable environments and K-selected species adapted to stable, competitive environments.
This document discusses national parks and biosphere reserves, which are areas designated for conservation. It provides details on:
- National parks aim to conserve scenery, natural features, and wildlife by prohibiting private rights and certain activities. They range in size from 0.04 to 3,162 km2.
- Biosphere reserves represent undisturbed ecosystems and include core, buffer, and other zones. They are established under UNESCO's MAB program to conserve biodiversity and genetic diversity.
- India has many national parks across its states that protect important ecosystems, as well as 10 designated biosphere reserves that qualify criteria around representation, genetic diversity, and research opportunities.
General Botany Group four presentation.
This presentation focus on so many biological related topics. It primarily focus on conservation of life in any biodiversity.
This document discusses ecological niches and the relationships between organisms and their environments. It defines key terms like ecology, biotic and abiotic factors, and ecological niche. An ecological niche refers to an organism's role and position in its environment, including what it eats, habitat requirements, and tolerance of environmental conditions. The document contrasts fundamental and realized niches, and explains Hutchinson's niche concept and Gause's competitive exclusion principle. Examples are provided of how different species occupy different niches to avoid competition, such as various finch species on the Galapagos Islands. Habitat is defined as the actual environment an organism lives in, while niche refers more to the specific requirements that allow it to survive and reproduce.
The document discusses biodiversity hotspots, with a focus on India and the state of Kerala. It defines genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity, and explains the criteria for designating areas as biodiversity hotspots. It notes that 25 major hotspots represent only 1.4% of the earth's land but contain 44% of plant and 35% of terrestrial vertebrate species. It provides details on the biodiversity found in India, particularly in Kerala, including the high levels of endemism among plants and animals. It also discusses the economic value of ecosystems in Kerala and conservation efforts underway.
An ecological niche describes how a species interacts with and fits into its environment, including obtaining resources like food and shelter, and reproducing. A niche encompasses all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. The fundamental niche is the full range of environmental conditions a species can tolerate without competition from other species. Species niches depend on factors like temperature, resources, and predators. Niches can overlap if species partition resources in non-competing ways, like dolphins and seals eating different types of fish.
This document summarizes key concepts in ecology. It defines ecology as the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It describes producers as organisms that use sunlight or chemical energy to produce food, including plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria. Consumers rely on producers and other organisms for food and include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Decomposers break down dead organic matter. Food chains and webs show how energy flows through ecosystems from producers to different trophic levels. Ecological pyramids illustrate the decrease in available energy and biomass at higher trophic levels. The document also discusses ecological interactions like competition, niches, predation, and symbiotic relationships between species.
This document defines and provides examples of symbiosis, which is a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms. There are three main types of symbiosis: mutualism, where both organisms benefit; commensalism, where one benefits and the other is unaffected; and parasitism, where one benefits and the other is harmed. Examples provided include relationships between acacia plants and ants, moray eels and cleaner fish, cattle and cattle egrets, and clown fish and sea anemones.
1. Species diversity refers to the number and variety of species in a given region. It takes into account both the number of species and how evenly abundant they are.
2. There are three main types of species: endemic, exotic, and cosmopolitan. Endemic species are restricted to a particular area while exotic species have been transported by humans.
3. Factors that affect species diversity include speciation, extinction, migration, habitat destruction, and the introduction of invasive species. Speciation occurs through geographic isolation or reductions in gene flow. Extinction can be caused by overharvesting, pollution, and habitat loss.
Population ecology is the science that studies changes in population size and composition, and identifies factors causing these changes. A population consists of all individuals of a species in a given area, and is characterized by its size, density, dispersion, births, deaths, and survivorship over time. Population dynamics examines how and why population size changes, influenced by density-dependent factors like resources and disease, and density-independent factors like weather. Populations typically follow an S-shaped logistic growth curve as they approach the carrying capacity of their environment.
Ecological pyramids graphically represent trophic structure and function in an ecosystem, with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex. There are pyramids of number, biomass, and energy. A pyramid of number shows the number of organisms per unit area at each trophic level, which can be upright or inverted. A pyramid of biomass represents the total biomass present at different trophic levels. A pyramid of energy shows the amount of energy at each trophic level, which is always upright based on the 10% law of energy transfer between levels. Limitations of ecological pyramids include not accounting for multiple feeding modes, detritus, or seasonal/daily variations.
Points on biomes,habitat,ecotone and their differentations.
also on terrestrial ,wetland,fresh water,marine habitat and their types .Explained much with pictures..so easy to remember and to take class .Hope this may help....
Productivity refers to the production of biomass per unit time and area. Gross productivity is the total gain, while net productivity is the gain remaining after respiratory loss. Primary productivity is energy captured by producers like plants, defined as gross primary productivity minus respiration. Secondary productivity refers to biomass gained by consumers. Factors like sunlight, temperature, water, nutrients influence productivity, with the most productive ecosystems having optimal conditions for plant growth.
This document discusses key concepts in ecology including the biosphere, ecosystems, trophic chains, and ecological factors. It begins by defining the biosphere as the global sum of all ecosystems, including the troposphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. It then explains ecosystem types from micro to macro and their parameters. Factors like species diversity and population sizes are qualitative and quantitative parameters. Trophic chains involve producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers and decomposers transmitting energy between trophic levels in food webs and chains. Ecological factors like optimum, pessimum and spectrum influence species distributions. In summary, the document outlines foundational ecological concepts and relationships between biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.
This document provides an overview of ecological concepts and principles of ecosystems. It defines ecology and describes the basic units of ecological systems from protoplasm to the biosphere. Key concepts discussed include populations, communities, ecosystems, food webs, and the abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems. Four principles of ecosystems are outlined: everything is related, everything must go somewhere, nature knows best, and there is no free lunch. Factors affecting ecosystems and environmental health are also summarized.
Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photosynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients and gains protection in return. The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare cases, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive structures.
Both species involved in the interaction are benefited. These interactions take place in three patterns:
Facultative mutualism – Species survive on their own under favorable conditions
Obligate mutualism – One species is dependent for survival on the other
Diffusive mutualism – One entity can live with multiple partners
These relationships have three purposes:
Defensive mutualism
Trophic mutualism
Dispersive mutualism
Plants and animals survive by protecting themselves and reproducing to propagate their species, passing on genetic information between generations. To cope with environmental changes, organisms form different relationships including competition over resources, predation where one organism eats another, coevolution where two species adapt due to changes in each other, and symbiosis where organisms live together to benefit or not harm one another. Populations of species can affect genetic diversity in ecosystems, and are influenced by birth/death rates, urbanization, climate change, and human activities. The environment has been disrupted by rapid human population growth causing changes to meet demands.
This document discusses various types of biological interactions between organisms including competition, mutualism, commensalism, amensalism, parasitism, and predation. Competition occurs when organisms attempt to use the same limited resources, and can be intraspecific or interspecific. Mutualism benefits both species involved. Commensalism benefits one species without affecting the other. Parasitism benefits one species at the expense of the other. Predation involves a predator consuming another organism, the prey. Examples of each type of interaction are provided.
Species interaction refers to the relationships between different organisms. There are several types of species interactions: competition (-,-), predation (+,-), parasitism (+,-), commensalism (+,0), mutualism (+,+), and amensalism (-,0). Coevolution can occur when two species evolve in response to one another through these interactions over time. Species interactions are important for maintaining natural balances within ecosystems as no species can survive without some degree of interaction with other species.
Species interaction between organism. Zeinab Klaab
This document discusses different types of species interactions: neutralism, competition, amensalism, symbiotic relationships (commensalism, mutualism, parasitism), and antagonism (predation, herbivory). Neutralism occurs when two species do not affect each other. Competition involves two species requiring the same limited resources. Amensalism harms one species without benefiting the other. Symbiotic relationships benefit at least one organism. Antagonism benefits one species at the expense of another, such as through predation or herbivory.
Species interactions can take several forms, including positive associations like mutualism, commensalism, and predation, as well as negative associations like competition. Predation involves one species hunting another for food, while coevolution describes how some species evolve together over time in response to each other. Symbiotic relationships like mutualism benefit both species, commensalism benefits one, and parasitism benefits one at the expense of the other. Competition for limited resources can lead to competitive exclusion of one species or resource partitioning where species divide resources to coexist.
The document describes the five major types of species interactions: competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. Competition involves two species attempting to use the same limited resource, harming both. Predation involves a predator species feeding on a prey species. Parasitism benefits the parasite species while harming the host species. Mutualism benefits both species involved. Commensalism benefits one species while not affecting the other. Over time, coevolution can lead to adaptations that reduce harm or improve benefits of interactions between species.
INTERACTIONS :Interaction is relationship between two organisms.
Also called as BIOLOGICAL OR ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS.
In a ecosystem, living (biotic) things have to interact with one another as well as with non -living components of their environment.
All the vital process of living such as growth, nutrition & reproduction requires such interactions between individuals in same species or between species.
The interaction between organisms may not be always beneficial to all the interacting counter parts. Based on whether, the interaction is beneficial to both interacting species or harmful to at least one interaction species, the ecological of biological interactions are classified into two categories.
It can BENEFIT an organisms
It can HARM an organisms
It can NO EFFECT an organisms
POSTIVE INTERACTIONS
In positive interactions, the interacting populations help one another.
The positive interaction may be in one way or reciprocal.
The benefit may be in respect of food, shelter, substratum or transportation.
The positive association may be continuous, transitory, obligate or facultative.
The two interacting partners may be in close contact in such a way that the tissues intermixed with each other; or they may live within a specific area of the other; or attached to its surface.
NEGATIVE INTERACTIONS
In negative interactions, one of the interacting populations is benefited and the other is harmed.
In negative interaction one population may eat members of the other population, compete for foods or excrete harmful wasters.
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP
Such relationship between living organisms when they live in close association of each other is called as SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP
Mutualism, also called as symbiosis, is also a positive type of ecological interaction.
Mutualism is a symbiotic association between two organisms in which both the interacting partners are mutually benefitted.
Mutualism is different from proto-cooperation in the sense that mutualism is obligatory and none of the partners of mutualism can survive individually.
In mutualism, the organisms enter into some sort of physical and physiological exchange
Population interaction refers to the interrelationships between individuals of the same or different species within an ecosystem. There are several types of population interactions including mutualism, competition, predation, parasitism, commensalism, amensalism, and protocooperation. These interactions can benefit, harm, or be neutral for the populations involved. Examples of different interactions in local ecosystems are discussed such as the mutualism between clownfish and sea anemones or the competition between cheetahs and lions over limited resources.
This document discusses different types of positive species interactions, including commensalism, proto-cooperation, and mutualism. Commensalism benefits one species without affecting the other, such as barnacles attaching to whales. Proto-cooperation benefits both species but is not obligatory, like oxpeckers eating parasites off impalas. Mutualism strongly benefits both participating species and they have evolved to depend on each other, such as lichen forming from algae and fungi symbiosis or cellulose-digesting bacteria in herbivore guts.
Insects interact with other organisms in their biotic environment in various ways. Intraspecific interactions within a species include competition for limited resources which can influence population density, birth and death rates, and dispersion. Interspecific interactions between different species can be positive, such as commensalism and mutualism, or negative, including predation, parasitism, cannibalism, and ammensalism. Positive interactions benefit both organisms while negative interactions harm at least one.
This document discusses several key concepts related to species interactions, including predation, coevolution, warning coloration, mimicry, cryptic coloration, competition, symbiosis, succession, and ecological niches. It describes how predation influences population balances and drives adaptations in prey. Competition and different symbiotic relationships like mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism are also outlined. Ecological succession and the fundamental versus realized niche concept are briefly defined.
the importance between living organisms and the environmentJiwamalar Jiwa
Living things interact with each other and their environment in various ways to survive. The document provides examples of interactions between aquatic organisms, including plants obtaining minerals from soil and oxygen from photosynthesis while animals obtain oxygen through respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Predator-prey relationships between big and small fish and birds are also described. Overall interactions create balance and equilibrium within ecosystems.
Biotic factors with reference to mutualism, amensalism, commensalism and para...Mariyam Nazeer Agha
This document discusses different types of biological interactions between species: mutualism, amensalism, commensalism, and parasitism. It provides examples for each type of interaction. Mutualism benefits both species, such as the relationship between plants and mycorrhizal fungi. Amensalism harms one species without affecting the other, like competition between trees and saplings. Commensalism benefits one species without affecting the other, exemplified by phoretic mites on insects. Parasitism benefits one species at the expense of the other, illustrated by tapeworms living in mammalian guts.
This document contains a student's responses to review questions about chapter 5. It lists examples of predator-prey relationships including a snake and chicken, penguin and fish, lion and zebra, frogs and insects, and an eagle and mouse. It defines the difference between an ecosystem and a community, with an ecosystem including both the living community and abiotic environment. Humans raising cattle for food is described as a form of predation but also potentially a mutualistic relationship. Examples are given of organisms that are herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. The different trophic levels in an ecosystem are outlined as producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, carnivores that eat carnivores, and
Community
all the organisms that live together in a place
Community Ecology
study of interactions among all -populations in a common environment
In what ways do populations interact?
Community – all the organisms that live together in one place
Community ecology – study of interactions among all populations in a common environment.
Interspecific interactions – among individuals of the different species.
Intraspecific interactions – among individuals of the same species.
Species Interaction…
-A traditional approach to population interactions has been to consider the direct pair-wise interactions.
Community Ecology is the study of interactions among all populations in a common environment.
Species Interaction is a traditional approach to population interactions has been to consider the direct pair wise interactions.
Two populations may or may not affect each other; if they do, the influence may be beneficial or adverse
Types of Population Relationships:
Interspecific interactions:
Competition and Coexistence
Predation
Mutualism
Commensalism
Intraspecific Interactions
Grasshoppers provide an animal example. Individual grasshoppers deprive their fellow conspecifics of food (exploitation competition).
It is probably a major factor involved in the evolution of plumage patterns in birds.
during intraspecific competition, animals will use whatever weapons are available to them and this makes it likely that the nature of the weapons determines the nature and location of patterns.
Ecological interactions form the backbone of an ecosystem. It helps in maintaining the
dynamic equilibrium of an ecosystem. All organisms are linked to at least one other species in a
variety of critical ways, for example, as predators or prey, or as pollinators or seed dispersers with the
result that each species is embedded in a complex network of interactions. Consequently, the
extinction of one species can lead to a cascade of secondary extinctions in ecological networks.
Moreover, interactions between species can lead to ‘community closure’ after the loss of a species,
with the result that a locally extinct species cannot re-establish itself if it is reintroduced. Many
ecological interactions involve flagship species and keystone species as in the case of Macaca
silenus & Cullenia exarillata. Then some interactions like mycorrhiza help in nitrogen fixation.
Strategies like predation reduce the loss of vegetation through grazing. Interaction can be either intraspecific or interspecific. Interactions between individuals of the same species
and those between individuals of different species are called intra- & interspecific interactions.
respectively. The lichen serves as an example of interspecific interaction and dog fighting.
for a common prey for intraspecific interaction.
M.r.tripathi (biology xii populaiton interction)shivasah1
The document describes different types of interspecific interactions:
1. Mutualism benefits both species, like the relationship between fungi and plants in mycorrhizae.
2. Predation benefits the predator species while harming the prey species, such as insects flushed out by cattle being eaten by egrets.
3. Parasitism benefits the parasite while harming the host, for example tapeworms living inside the intestines of another organism.
4. Commensalism benefits one species without affecting the other, like orchids growing on trees.
5. Competition harms both species as they contend for the same limited resources, as seen with flamingoes and fish competing for z
IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANT EDIBLE CRUSTACEANS.pptxDr. Karri Ramarao
Crabs, prawns, crayfish and lobster are examples of edible crustaceans that are among the main sources of nutrient-rich food for people. A crustacean's nutritional value is determined by its biochemical makeup, which includes its protein, amino acids, lipids, fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.
Habitat: All ctenophores are exclusively marine.
Habits: They feed on plankton, swim by cilia. Power of regeneration is well marked. Bioluminescence
Body form is variable
Symmetry:
Symmetry is biradial (radial + bilateral).
Skeletal structures in sponges are spicules and spongin fibers. Spicules are formed of calcium carbonate or silica and take needle-like forms. Spongin fibers are composed of a silk-like scleroprotein. Spicules come in two types - megascleres, which form the framework, and microscleres, which are scattered. Megascleres include monaxons, tetraxons, triaxons, polyaxons and spheres. Spicules develop from mesenchyme cells called scleroblasts. Spongin is an organic, elastic substance similar to collagen that forms the skeletal fibers.
Liming materials are used in aquaculture ponds to neutralize acidity in bottom soils and water and increase total alkalinity. Common liming materials used include agricultural limestone made from crushed limestone and burned limestone. Liming helps raise the pH of acidic water to a neutral or slightly alkaline level, increases the alkaline reserve to prevent extreme pH changes, and promotes biological productivity which enhances breakdown of organic substances. The quality of liming materials is assessed based on neutralizing value and particle size with lime usually being a fine material.
Gynogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in fish that requires sperm for egg activation and development, but where the paternal DNA does not contribute to the offspring's genes. The sperm's DNA is destroyed before it can fuse with the egg, so all the genetic information comes from the maternal egg. One method is fertilizing salmonid eggs with ultraviolet-irradiated sperm, which activates the eggs but cannot contribute DNA. Androgenesis is similar but derives the nuclear genes from the father while retaining the mitochondrial DNA from the mother.
A Secchi disk is a metal disk, 8 inches (20 centimeter) in diameter, It is an 8-inch (20 centimeter) diameter, black and white disk attached to a dowel rod, PVC pipe, rope or chain The depth that the Secchi disk can no longer be seen through the water is the Secchi depth.
Biostatistics is also known as biometry, the development and application of statistical methods to a wide range of topics in biology. It encompasses the design of biological experiments, the collection and analysis of data from those experiments and the interpretation of the results.
The alimentary canal of Scoliodon comprises:
the mouth,
buccal cavity,
pharynx,
oesophagus,
stomach,
intestine and
rectum opening in the cloaca through anus.
Fishes possess dermal scales on the body for protection. Each scale is made of dentine that is secreted by dermal papilla which is a group of specialized neighbouring tissues. The exposed
portion of scale is covered with a layer of hard enamel to minimise wear and tear. Ancient
fishes generally had thick bony scales while the modern fishes have evolved thin and flexible
scales for more agility.
Catadromous migration: The movement of large number of individuals from fresh water to sea water, generally for spawning as happens in the case of eels.
Anadromous fishes live and feed in ocean waters but their spawning grounds lie in the tributaries of rivers.
Fish culture is classified based on the number of fish species as monoculture and polyculture. This is the culture of single species of fish in a pond or tank. The culture of trout, tilapia, catfish , carps are typical examples of monoculture.
Classification of Nematodes
Nematodes are classified into the following classes:
1. Phasmidia or Secernentea
• These are mostly parasitic.
• Caudal glands are absent.
• Unicellular, pouch-like sense organs called plasmids are present.
• The excretory system has paired lateral canals.
• Eg., Ascaris, Enterobius
2. Aphasmidia or Adenophorea
• They are free-living organisms.
• The excretory system has no lateral canals.
• Caudal glands are present.
• Phasmids are absent.
• Eg., Capillaria, Trichinella
This document provides an introduction to poultry farming. It discusses that poultry refers to various bird species raised for meat, eggs, or ornamental purposes. The main types of poultry discussed are chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and quail. Poultry farming has grown significantly in India in recent decades, evolving from small backyard operations to large commercial enterprises. Selecting the right birds, such as broiler chickens for meat or layer chickens for eggs, as well as proper housing, feeding, and management, are keys to success in poultry farming. Poultry provides benefits such as a source of income, fertilizer, and pest control, and can be profitable with the right
This document discusses fish diseases categorized into parasitic, nutritional, protozoan, helminth, crustacean, fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases. It provides detailed information on the causative agents, symptoms, and recommended treatments for various diseases that affect fish, such as ichthyophthiriasis, costiasis, whirling disease, gyrodactylus, saprolegniasis, furunculosis, tuberculosis, and infectious pancreatic necrosis. The document is authored by Dr. K. Rama Rao and appears to be a reference text on fish pathology and diseases.
Identification and study of important cultivable FishesDr. Karri Ramarao
This document identifies and provides descriptions of 10 important cultivable fish species found in India. For each species, it provides the scientific classification (phylum, class, order, family, genus, species), common name, local name, identification characters including fin formula, distinguishing physical traits, habitat, feeding behavior, and other notes. The species described are Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala, Cyprinus carpio, Channa striatus, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Pangasius pangasius, Oreochromis niloticus, Mugil cephalus, and Lates calcarifer.
This document describes different types of aquaculture practices based on salinity levels: mariculture for saltwater environments, metahaline culture for supersaline areas, brackishwater culture, and freshwater culture. For each environment, various culture methods are outlined, such as cage culture, raft culture, rack culture, and integrated fish farming. Culture techniques like monosex culture and air-breathing fish culture are also summarized.
The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and digestive glands. The alimentary canal is a long tube that begins at the mouth and ends at the anus. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Digestive glands such as the salivary glands, gastric glands, pancreas, liver, and intestinal glands secrete enzymes to break down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body.
The document summarizes the key digestive processes in humans. It describes digestion as involving the mixing of food, its movement through the digestive tract, and the chemical breakdown of large food molecules into smaller ones. The major digestive processes are ingestion, propulsion, mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation. Mechanical digestion breaks food into smaller pieces physically, while chemical digestion uses enzymes to break molecules down chemically starting in the mouth and finishing in the small intestine.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
(June 12, 2024) Webinar: Development of PET theranostics targeting the molecu...Scintica Instrumentation
Targeting Hsp90 and its pathogen Orthologs with Tethered Inhibitors as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategy for cancer and infectious diseases with Dr. Timothy Haystead.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
Travis Hills of MN is Making Clean Water Accessible to All Through High Flux ...Travis Hills MN
By harnessing the power of High Flux Vacuum Membrane Distillation, Travis Hills from MN envisions a future where clean and safe drinking water is accessible to all, regardless of geographical location or economic status.
2. In ecology, a community is the
biotic component of an ecosystem.
It consists of populations of
different species that live in the
same area and interact with one
another.
The five main forms of interaction
between population. The forms
are: 1. Mutualism 2.
Commensalism 3. Parasitism 4.
Competition 5. Predation.
4. 1. Mutualism:
It is an interaction that confers
benefits to both the interacting
species.
Examples of mutualism are:
a. Lichens represent an intimate
mutualistic relationship between a
fungus and photosynthesizing
algae or cyanobacteria.
5. Here, the fungus helps in the
absorption of nutrients and
provides protection, while algae
prepare the food.
6. b. Plants need help from animals
for pollination and dispersal of
seeds. In return, plants provide
nectar, pollens and fruits to the
pollinators.
7. For example, the female wasp uses
the fruit not only as an oviposition
(egg-laying) site but uses the
developing seeds within the fruit
for nourishing its larvae.
8. The wasp pollinates the fig
inflorescence, while searching for
suitable egg-laying sites. In return,
fig provides the wasp some seeds
as food for the developing wasp
larvae.
9. 2. Commensalism:
It is the interaction between two
species, where one species is
benefitted and the other is
neither harmed nor benefitted.
10. Examples
a. Barnacles growing on the back
of whale gets benefitted to move
to different locations for food as
well as shelter, while the whales
are neither benefitted nor
harmed.
11. b. Egrets always forage close to
where the cattle are grazing.
Because, the cattle egrets are
benefitted by the cattle to detect
insects as the cattle stir up the
bushes and insects are flushed
out from the vegetation to be
catched by cattle egrets.
12.
13. c. Sea anemone has stinging
tentacles and the clown fish lives
among them.
The fish gets protection from
predators, which stay away from
the stinging tentacles. The
anemone does not appear to derive
any benefit by hosting the clown
fish.
14.
15. 3. Parasitism:
It is the mode of interaction
between the two species in which
one species (parasite) depends on
the other species (host) for food
and shelter and damages the host.
In this process, one organism is
benefitted (parasite), while the
other being harmed (host).
16. (i) Adaptation Methods of a
Parasite:
(a) Parasite is host-specific in a way
that both host and parasite tend to
co-evolve.
(b) Loss of unnecessary sense
organs.
(c) Presence of adhesive organs or
suckers.
(d) Loss of digestive system.
(e) High reproductive capacity.
17. (ii) The life cycles of parasites are
often complex, involving one or
two intermediate hosts or vectors
to facilitate parasitisation of its
primary host.
For example
(a)Human liver fluke
(b)Malarial parasite
18.
19. (iii) Majority of parasites harm the
host. They reduce the survival,
growth and reproduction of the
host. They reduce its population
density by making it physically
weak.
(a) Ectoparasites feed on the
external surface of the host
organism for food and shelter.
20. (b) Endoparasites live inside the
host’s body at different sites like
liver, kidney, lungs, etc., for food
and shelter.
(c) Brood parasitism is a
phenomenon in which one
organism (parasite) lays its eggs in
the nest of another organism.
22. 4. Competition:
Competition occurs when closely
related species compete for the same
resources that are limited:
a. It can be best defined as a process in
which the fitness of one species
(measured in terms of its ‘r’ the
intrinsic rate of increase) is
significantly lower in the presence of
another species.
23. b. It is a type of interaction, where
both the species suffer.
c. Some totally unrelated species
could also compete for the same
resources
c. In interspecific competition, the
feeding efficiency of one species
might be reduced due to the
interfering and inhibitory presence of
the other species.
24. 5. Predation:
It is an interspecific interaction,
where an animal called predator
kills and consumes the other
weaker animal called prey. This is a
biological control method .
Important roles of predators are:
25. (i) They keep prey population
under control.
(ii) They help in maintaining
species diversity in a community
by reducing the intensity of
competition among prey species.
(iii) In absence of predators, prey
species could achieve very high
population densities and cause
instability.
26. (iv) When certain exotic species
are introduced into a geographical
area, they become invasive and
start spreading fast.
(v) If a predator is too efficient
and exploits its prey, then the prey
might become extinct.
(vi) Prey species have evolved
various defence mechanisms to
lessen the impact of predation.
27. Some species of insects and frogs
are cryptically coloured
(camouflage) to avoid being
detected easily by the predator.