The alimentary canal of Scoliodon comprises:
the mouth,
buccal cavity,
pharynx,
oesophagus,
stomach,
intestine and
rectum opening in the cloaca through anus.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
looking after the eggs or young until they are independent to defend from predators is known as parental care.
Amphibians show great diversity in Parental care.
The primitive blueprint for the heart and circulatory system emerged with the arrival of the third mesodermal germ layer in bilaterians. Since then, hearts in animals have evolved from a single layered tube to a multiple chambered heart in due course of time.
The nervous system of Pila globosa consists of paired and unpaired ganglia with their commissures and connectives.
The commissures are the nerves that establish connections between similar ganglia, while connectives are the nerves that connect two dissimilar or different ganglia.
It discusses basic information regarding a hemichordate animal called Balanoglossus or Acorn worm, which is also a good connecting link between the non-chordates and chordates.
looking after the eggs or young until they are independent to defend from predators is known as parental care.
Amphibians show great diversity in Parental care.
The primitive blueprint for the heart and circulatory system emerged with the arrival of the third mesodermal germ layer in bilaterians. Since then, hearts in animals have evolved from a single layered tube to a multiple chambered heart in due course of time.
The nervous system of Pila globosa consists of paired and unpaired ganglia with their commissures and connectives.
The commissures are the nerves that establish connections between similar ganglia, while connectives are the nerves that connect two dissimilar or different ganglia.
It discusses basic information regarding a hemichordate animal called Balanoglossus or Acorn worm, which is also a good connecting link between the non-chordates and chordates.
Chapter 17 breathing & exchange of gases (repaired) (2)Kailash Vilegave
UNIT – V : HUMAN PHYSIOLOGYCHAPTER 17 : BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
Respiratory organs in animals (recall only); Respiratory system in humans; Mechanism of breathingand its regulation in humans-Exchange of gases, transport of gases and regulation of respiration Respiratory volumes; Disorders related to respiration-Asthma, Emphysema, Occupational respiratory disorders.
In the human body, a complex network of fluids and vessels works tirelessly to transport essential substances, ensuring the proper functioning of every cell and organ. This system, known as the circulatory system, plays a vital role in distributing oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other crucial molecules while removing waste products.
In our journey through this topic, we will explore the composition of blood, the functions of various blood components, the mechanisms of circulation, and the importance of maintaining a healthy circulatory system. Understanding body fluids and circulation is not only essential for grasping the basics of human physiology but also for appreciating the intricate balance required to sustain life.
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Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT)//DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Wasim Ak
The digestive tract or gastrointestinal tract ( GIT) is composed of mouth , pharynx, oesophagus, stomach , small intestine and large intestine .
This GIT will helps in digestion of food and absorption of needed nutrients into our body .
IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANT EDIBLE CRUSTACEANS.pptxDr. Karri Ramarao
Crabs, prawns, crayfish and lobster are examples of edible crustaceans that are among the main sources of nutrient-rich food for people. A crustacean's nutritional value is determined by its biochemical makeup, which includes its protein, amino acids, lipids, fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.
Habitat: All ctenophores are exclusively marine.
Habits: They feed on plankton, swim by cilia. Power of regeneration is well marked. Bioluminescence
Body form is variable
Symmetry:
Symmetry is biradial (radial + bilateral).
The spicules or sclerites are definite bodies, having a crystalline appearance and consisting in general of simple spines or of spines radiating from a point.
They have an axis of organic material around which is deposited the inorganic substance, either calcium carbonate or hydrated silica.
A number of different substances are used as liming materials, the chemical used for the liming of soil and water are the oxides, hydroxides and silicates of calcium or magnesium
Gynogenesis, a form of Parthenogensis, is a system of asexual reproduction that requires the presence of sperm without the actual contribution of its DNA for completion. The paternal DNA dissolves or is destroyed before it can fuse with the egg
A Secchi disk is a metal disk, 8 inches (20 centimeter) in diameter, It is an 8-inch (20 centimeter) diameter, black and white disk attached to a dowel rod, PVC pipe, rope or chain The depth that the Secchi disk can no longer be seen through the water is the Secchi depth.
Biostatistics is also known as biometry, the development and application of statistical methods to a wide range of topics in biology. It encompasses the design of biological experiments, the collection and analysis of data from those experiments and the interpretation of the results.
Fishes possess dermal scales on the body for protection. Each scale is made of dentine that is secreted by dermal papilla which is a group of specialized neighbouring tissues. The exposed
portion of scale is covered with a layer of hard enamel to minimise wear and tear. Ancient
fishes generally had thick bony scales while the modern fishes have evolved thin and flexible
scales for more agility.
Catadromous migration: The movement of large number of individuals from fresh water to sea water, generally for spawning as happens in the case of eels.
Anadromous fishes live and feed in ocean waters but their spawning grounds lie in the tributaries of rivers.
Fish culture is classified based on the number of fish species as monoculture and polyculture. This is the culture of single species of fish in a pond or tank. The culture of trout, tilapia, catfish , carps are typical examples of monoculture.
Classification of Nematodes
Nematodes are classified into the following classes:
1. Phasmidia or Secernentea
• These are mostly parasitic.
• Caudal glands are absent.
• Unicellular, pouch-like sense organs called plasmids are present.
• The excretory system has paired lateral canals.
• Eg., Ascaris, Enterobius
2. Aphasmidia or Adenophorea
• They are free-living organisms.
• The excretory system has no lateral canals.
• Caudal glands are present.
• Phasmids are absent.
• Eg., Capillaria, Trichinella
The most common fish diseases, particularly in freshwater aquaria, include columnaris, gill disease, ick (ich), dropsy, tail and fin-rot, fungal infections, white spot disease, pop-eye, cloudy eye, swim bladder disease, lice and nematode worms infestation, water quality induced diseases, constipation, anorexia, ...
Identification and study of important cultivable FishesDr. Karri Ramarao
In India mostly major carps are use to cultivable freshwater fish and some catfish also use to culture. The important cultivable species are Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigalaIn India mostly major carps are use to cultivable fish and some catfish also use to culture. The important cultivable saline water species areMugils, Lates etc,.
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Delightful Finds: Unveiling the Power of Gifts Under 100JoyTree Global
Stretch your budget and spread joy! This guide explores the world of gifts under 100, proving thoughtful gestures don't require a hefty price tag. Discover unique and practical options for birthdays, holidays, or simply showing someone you care. Find inspiration for every occasion within your budget!
Best Catering Event Planner Miso-Hungry.pptxMiso Hungry
Miso-Hungry, led by Executive Chef Emilio Molina, is Islamorada's premier catering event planner. We specialize in sustainable, farm-fresh cuisine, using local ingredients to create unforgettable dishes. As a FollowTheFoodHMI branded company, we bring our culinary expertise across the U.S., connecting communities through exceptional food and personalized event planning. Let us showcase our family's passion and make your event extraordinary.
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How Does Littering Affect the Environment.ClenliDirect
Read this PPT now to gain in-depth insights into how to fight litter and safeguard our landscapes from its negative impacts.
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Earth moving equipment refers to heavy-duty machines used in construction, mining, agriculture, and other industries to move large amounts of earth, soil, and other materials. These machines include excavators, bulldozers, loaders, and backhoes, which are essential for tasks such as digging, grading, and leveling land.
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2. Alimentary Canal:
The alimentary canal of Scoliodon
comprises:
the mouth,
buccal cavity,
pharynx,
oesophagus,
stomach,
intestine and
rectum opening in the cloaca through
anus.
3.
4. a. Mouth:
It is a ventral crescentic opening guarded
by upper and lower lips which are folds of
integument.
b. Buccal Cavity:
The mouth leads into a spacious dorso-
ventrally compressed buccal cavity. It is
bordered with jaws. The buccal cavity is
lined with a thick mucous membrane.
5. Denticles are all alike in shape,
homodont, and are borne in several
parallel rows on the inner margin of the
upper and lower jaws.
c. Pharynx:
The buccal cavity merges posteriorly
with the large pharynx lined by
endoderm.
The cavity of pharynx is lined with
mucous membrane containing numerous
dermal denticles.
6. d. Oesophagus:
The pharynx narrows posteriorly to
form the short and wide oesophagus.
The oesophagus has thick muscular
walls with an internal lining of
mucous membrane raised into
longitudinal folds.
7. e. Stomach:
The oesophagus widens posteriorly to
form the large muscular stomach.
The stomach is bent on itself and forms
a J-shaped organ, the long, wider
distensible proximal limb which is called
the cardiac stomach, while the short
narrow distal limb is called the pyloric
stomach.
8.
9. f. Intestine:
The bursa entiana continues into the
intestine. The intestine is a wide tube
running straight backwards into
abdominal cavity and its middle region is
like cardiac stomach in diameter.
Its narrow anterior part receives the bile
and pancreatic ducts.
10.
11. g. Rectum:
The short and narrow rectum is the last
part of the alimentary canal. The
tubular rectal (caecal) gland opens
dorsally into the rectum.
Its function is not known. The rectum
opens into the cloaca through anus. Into
the cloaca also open the urinogenital
ducts.
12. Glands of the Alimentary Canal:
a. Liver, Rectal Gland, and Spleen:
The liver is an elongated yellowish gland,
consisting of two lobes which extend back
along the greater part of the abdominal
cavity.
The liver produces bile, stores glycogen and
fat. It also destroys worn-out red blood
corpuscles since Kupffer cells are present.
The gall bladder, which stores the bile
secreted by the liver.
13. b. Pancreas:
The pancreas is a compact bilobed gland
situated in the angle between the cardiac
and pyloric stomach.
The pancreatic duct opens into the
intestine just opposite to the opening of
the bile-duct
14. c. Rectal Gland:
The rectal or caecal gland is a short thick
hollow diverticulum arising from the
dorsal wall of the rectum.
It is richly vascularised and formed of
lymphoid tissue.
15. d. Spleen:
It is a large lymphoid organ attached
with the cardiac and pyloric stomach.
It produced lymphocytes and, thus,
has no physiological relation with the
alimentary canal.
16. Food and Physiology of Digestion:
Scoliodon is carnivorous and feeder. The
digestion starts only in the cardiac
stomach. The cardiac stomach secretes
the gastric juice which contains pepsin
and hydrochloric acid that converts
proteins into proteoses and peptones.
The gastric juice is not able to digest
chitin.
17. The pancreas secretes trypsin, amylopsin,
and lipase. As the semi-digested food
enters the intestine it is acted upon “by
the bile and the pancreatic juice.
The bile makes the food alkaline and,
thus, helps the action of pancreatic juice.
The trypsin acts on the remaining
proteins, the amylopsin converts starch
into sugar and lipase turns fats into fatty
acids.
18. The digested food is absorbed into
the blood over the extensive
surfaces of the intestine and scroll-
valve.
20. The respiration is aquatic. It breathes
by means of gills borne in a series of
gill-pouches on either lateral side of the
pharynx.
Water enters the mouth and after
passing through the buccal cavity,
pharynx, gill- pouches bearing gill-
lamallae, goes out through the external
gill-slits after bathing the gills.
21.
22. Respiratory Organs:
There are five pairs of gill- pouches
bearing gills, arranged in a series
behind the hyoid arch in the lateral
walls of the pharynx.
Each gill-pouch has two sets of gill-
lamellae. The branchial lamellae have
a rich blood supply.
23. Mechanism of Respiration:
1. Inspiration:
The floor of the buccopharyngeal
cavity is depressed by the contraction
of hypobranchial (hypoglossal) muscles
due to which the visceral arches expand
the wall of the pharynx.
24. 2. Expiration:
During expiration the mouth becomes
closed by the action of adductor muscle.
The respiratory movements are caused
by pharyngeal muscles which are
innervated by V, VII, IX and X cranial
nerves and the hypoglossal spinal nerve.
25. Physiology of Respiration:
the highest concentration of oxygen and
the lowest of carbon dioxide, thus, an
efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide takes place between the blood
and sea-water.
26. The oxygen of the water passes by endosmosis
through the thin capillary walls into the
blood, and at the same time the carbon
dioxide of the blood passes into the water by a
process of exosmosis.
The oxygen is conveyed by the blood to all the
parts of the body, while carbon dioxide
brought to the gills in the venous blood is
eliminated by the water of the outgoing
respiratory current.
28. Heart:
Heart is a bent muscular tube and
consists of the receiving parts,
comprising of a sinus venosus and a
dorsally placed auricle and the
forwarding parts, consisting of a
ventricle and a conus arteriosus.
The heart is situated on the ventral
side of the body between two series of
gill pouches.
29.
30. The auricle is a large, triangular and
thin walled chamber situated dorsal to
the ventricle but in front of the sinus
venosus.
The auricle communicates with the
ventricle through a slit-like auriculo-
ventricular aperture guarded by two
lipped valves.
31. The receiving chambers (sinus venosus and
auricle) receive the venous blood from all
parts of the body.
The function of the heart is to receive the
deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body
and to pump it for aeration to the gills.
Such a type of heart is designated as the
venous or branchial heart, because only the
deoxygenated blood circulates through it.
33. The nervous system of Scoliodon
includes:
(i) The central nervous system,
(ii) The peripheral nervous system, and
(iii) The autonomous nervous system.
(i) Central nervous system:
The central nervous system consists of
brain and the spinal cord.
(a) Brain:
34. Brain is highly organised and shows
many advancements over that of the
agnathans.
The brain is divided into three
primary parts:
(a) The forebrain or prosencephalon,
(b) The midbrain or mesencephalon
(c) The hindbrain or rhomben-
cephalon.
35.
36. 1. The forebrain consists of a
massive undivided cerebral
hemisphere. The cerebral
hemisphere is relatively larger than
that of other fishes.
From the anterior end of cerebral
hemisphere arise two stout olfactory
peduncles; each terminates into a
large bilobed olfactory lobe
37. The olfactory lobes lie close to the olfactory
capsules. Each olfactory nerve is composed of
many bundles of nerve fibres.
The surface of the cerebrum is smooth and the
walls are thick. A small opening on the mid-
ventral surface of the cerebrum.
The posterior part of forebrain (diencephalon)
is very short. The roof of the diencephalon is
thin, non-nervous and contains the anterior
choroid plexus.
38. 2. The mid-brain is large and consists of
two round optic lobes. The optic lobes are
situated behind the diencephalon.
3. The hindbrain consists of a highly
developed cerebellum and a medulla
oblongata.
The cerebellum is divided into three lobes
by two well-marked transverse furrows.
39. The medulla oblongata is triangular
and the anterior end gives a pair of
hollow corpora restiformia with trace
of convolutions in adults. The
medulla controls respiration.
The hind- brain controls swimming
movements. The cerebellum is
divided into three lobes by two well-
marked transverse furrows.
40. (b) Spinal cord:
The spinal cord in Scoliodon shows
definite advancement towards the
plan of higher vertebrates. The grey
matter is arranged into the dorsal
and the ventral horns. The dorsal
horns are united to form a single
broad region; as a result the grey
matter assumes a shape of an
inverted ‘T’.
41. (ii) Peripheral nervous system:
The peripheral nervous system
includes the cranial nerves and spinal
nerves.
(a) Cranial nerves:
There are ten pairs of cranial nerves
in all the fishes.
The first pair of cranial nerves is the
olfactory nerves which originate from
the olfactory lobes and innervate the
olfactory sacs.
42. The second pair of cranial nerves is the
optic nerves which, after the origin from
the optic thalami, form the optic chiasma
and supply the eyes.
The third cranial nerve is called
oculomotor nerve which originates from
the ventral surface of the mesencephalon
and supplies the anterior, superior and
inferior recti and the inferior oblique
muscles of each eye ball.
43. The fourth cranial nerve is called
trochlear or pathetic nerve which
arises from the dorsolateral surface
of the midbrain and supplies the
superior oblique eye muscle.
44. The fifth cranial nerve is the
trigeminal which has three branches:
(1) Ophthalmicus superficial which
supplies to the skin of the snout.
(2) The maxillaris which is divided
into maxillaris superior supplying
nerves to the skin of the upper jaw
and maxillaris inferior innervating
the posterior part of the upper jaw.
45.
46.
47. (3) The mandibularis innervating the
muscles of the lower jaw.
Another nerve called ophthalmicus
pro-fundus becomes secondarily
associated with the trigeminal to
supply nerves to the eye ball and the
dorsal surface of the snout
48. The sixth cranial nerve is the
abducens which supplies the
posterior rectus muscle of the eye
ball.
The seventh cranial nerve is known
as facial which divides into two
branches:
(1) The ophthalmicus superficialis
branch like that of the fifth cranial
nerve.
49. (2) A bundle of mixed nerves which
subdivides into three routes:
The eighth cranial nerve is called auditory
which gives the vestibular and saccular
branches to the internal ear.
The ninth cranial nerve is the glosso-
pharyngeal which, in the region of the first
gill cleft, divides into a small pretrematic
nerve and a large post-trematic nerve.
50. These nerves supply branches to the
pharynx, pharyngeal muscles and the
mucous membrane surrounding the
first gill slit.
The tenth cranial nerve is the vagus
which arises by multiple roots and
gives off many branches.
51. (b) Spinal nerves:
The spinal nerves arise from the
spinal cord. Each has one dorsal and
one ventral root. The dorsal root
bears a ganglionic swelling.
After emerging out through the
vertebral column, the dorsal and the
ventral roots unite to form a common
mixed nerve.