The document contains questions and answers about various topics related to transport systems in the human body. It discusses the differences between arteries, capillaries and veins, the flow of blood through the heart, and the mechanism of blood clotting. It also describes the formation of interstitial fluid and lymph, the structure and role of the lymphatic system, and its relationship to the circulatory system.

1. CHAPTER 1:
TRANSPORT

2. QUESTIONS
1. What is leukaemia?
2. Does a cockroach have blood?
3. Does a cockroach have
haemoglobin? How do the body
tissues obtain oxygen?
4. Where is the hole for a patient who
has a hole in the heart?

3. QUESTIONS
5. Why do some patients reject the
organs they received from
transplant?
6. Can we be infected with AIDS if we
touch a HIV positive patient?
7. Does the blood clot in the blood
vessels? Why?
8. What causes the heartbeat?

4. QUESTIONS
1. What is leukaemia?
It is blood cancer in which the
leukocytes count decreases while
erythrocytes count increases.
2. Does a cockroach have blood?
Yes. It has fluid called haemolymph
which acts as a medium of
transport.

5. QUESTIONS
3. Does a cockroach have haemoglobin?
How do the body tissues obtain oxygen?
No. oxygen enters the body directly
through the spiracles at the sides of the
body. Oxygen is then transported along
the tracheal system directly into the body
tissues.
4. Where is the hole for a patient who has a
hole in the heart?
Septum

6. QUESTIONS
5. Why do some patients reject the
organs they received from
transplant?
The patient’s body recognises the
transplanted organ as a foreign
object. This triggers an immune
response in which antibodies are
produced to attack the organ. This
may lead to death in a patient.

7. QUESTIONS
6. Can we be infected with AIDS if we
touch a HIV positive patient?
We would not be infected if there is
no exposed wound at the point of
contact between the two persons.

8. QUESTIONS
7. Does the blood clot in the blood
vessels? Why?
No. The blood inside the body
contains heparin which prevents
blood clotting in the blood vessels.
8. What causes the heartbeat?
It is the result of the closing of the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves as well
as the semilunar valves.

10. Sistem
Pengangkutan
Organisma
Multisel
Diperlukan oleh
haiwan tumbuhan
Berlaku
dalam

11. haiwan
Sistem peredaran
Mekanisme pembekuan
darah
Sistem limfa
Limfa
Salur limfa
Nodus limfa Sistem
pertahanan
Sistem
imun
darah
Salur
darah
jantung
Sistem
tertutup
Sistem
terbuka
Ganda duatunggal
Tak lengkap lengkap
jenis
dibahagikan
perlu
contributes
termasuk
Terdiri drp comprises
Bila musnah
Sel darah,
plasma darah
mengandungi

12. Sistem Peredaran
• Membawa nutrien dan oksigen ke sel
• membawa hasil buangan keluar
daripada sel.
• melindungi badan daripada jangkitan
• mempunyai tiga komponen utama;
–medium
–pam
–salur

13. • medium diperlukan untuk membawa bahan
ke seluruh sistem peredaran
• manusia dan haiwan darah
• invertebrata (serangga) hemolimfa
• darah adalah sejenis tisu penghubung yang
terdiri daripada plasma, sel- sel darah dan
platlet.

14. • Jantung berfungsi sebagai pam
berotot yang mengedarkan darah
seluruh badan.
• Salur darah adalah salur yg
mengandungi arteri, kapilari dan
vena yg bersambung dengan jantung
untuk mengangkut darah ke seluruh
tisu badan.

16. Sel darah merah

17. Sel darah putih (Granulosit)
Basofil
Eosinofil
Neutrofil

18. Sel darah putih (agranulosit)
monosit
Limfosit

19. Fungsi darah
• oksigen daripada peparu ke sel seluruh
badan, karbon dioksida daripada sel
badan ke peparu.
• Angkut nutrien, hormon dan antibodi ke
seluruh badan.
• Angkut hasil buangan keluar daripada sel
ke organ perkumuhan.

20. • Kawal atur
– pH darah
– Suhu badan
– Kandungan air dalam sel
• Melindingi kita
– drp kehilangan banyak darah apabila cedera
melalui mekanisma pembekuan darah 
menyembuh luka.
– drp penyakit dan bantu melawan jangkitan.
Fungsi darah…samb

21. Fungsi hemolimfa
• Transports water, inorganic salts and
organic compounds throughout the
haemocoel. Angkut air, garam tak organik
dan sebatian organik seluruh hemoselom.
• tidak mengangkut gas respirasi.
• Dalam serangga, gas respirasi diangkut
melalui sistem trakea.

22. Komposisi darah manusia

24. The differences between arteries, capillaries
and veins
Characterist
ic
Arteries Capillaries Veins
Wall
Thick,
muscular,
elastic
One-cell
thick, no
muscle or
elastic
tissue
Thin, less
muscular,
less elastic
Lumen Small Very small Large
Valve No valve No valve
Have
valves

25. Characteri
stic
Arteries Capillaries Veins
Direction
of blood
flow
From the heart
to the organs
From arteries to
veins
From all parts
of the body to
the heart
Blood
content
Oxygenated
blood except
the pulmonary
artery
Oxygenated
blood at the
arteriole ends &
deoxygenated
blood at the
venule ends
Deoxygenated
blood except
the pulmonary
vein
To transport
blood quickly
at high
Allow rapid
gaseous
exchange
Allow blood
from the

27. The
human
heart
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
4
3

29. The flow of blood in the heart
1. Oxygenated blood from the lungs
enters the left atrium through the
pulmonary veins.
2. Deoxygenated blood from the rest of
the body enters the right atrium via
the vena cava.
3. As blood fills the atria contract and
push the blood through the bicuspid
and tricuspid valves into the two
ventricles.

30. The flow of blood in the heart… cont
4. When the ventricles contract, the
semi-lunar valves are forced open
and blood is pushed into the
pulmonary arteries and the aorta.
5. Deoxygenated blood is pumped
through the pulmonary arteries to
the lungs.
6. Oxygenated blood is pump through
the aorta to the rest of the body.

31. Jantung Manusia

32. The pumping of the heart
• Each time the heart contracts, it acts
as a pump which sends blood
throughout the body.
• The heart is made up of a strong
muscle, called the cardiac muscle.

33. The pumping of the heart… cont
• The cardiac muscle cells are
interconnected
• This interconnection allows electrical
impulses to spread rapidly through
the heart and, at the same time,
stimulates the cardiac muscle cells
to contract in a coordinated
movement.

34. The pumping of the heart… cont
• The cardiac muscle is myogenic.
• This means it contracts and relaxes
without the need to receive
stimulation by nerve impulses to
make it contract.
• The contractions of the heart are
initiated and coordinated by a
pacemaker.

35. The pumping of the heart… cont
• The pacemaker is a cluster of
specialised heart ,muscle cells that
set the rate of contraction.
• It is located in the wall of the right
atrium.
• The pacemaker generates electrical
impulses which spread rapidly over
the walls of both atria, causing the
atria to contract rhythmically.

36. The pumping of the heart… cont
• The heart’s primary pacemaker is the
sinoatrial (SA) node because it keeps the
heartbeats regular.
• From the SA node, the impulses are
relayed to the atrioventricular (AV) node,
located at the bottom of the right atrium.
• From the AV node, bundle of His fibres,
bundle branches and Purkinje fibres
send the impulses to the apex of the
heart and throughout the walls of the
ventricles.

38. pengecutan otot jantung
menghasilkan
pengepaman jantung

40. 1. The SA node generates electrical
impulses.
2. The electrical impulses spread rapidly
over the walls of both atria, making the
walls contract simultaneously.
Contractions of the atria help to pump
blood into the ventricles.
3. The electrical signals reach the AV node.
The bundle of His fibres, bundle
branches and Purkinje fibres send the
impulses to the apex of the heart.
4. The electrical impulses spread to the
ventricles, causing them to pump and
push blood out to the lungs and body

41. mekanisme
pengawalaturan tekanan
darah

42. Mekanisme kawal atur tekanan darah
• Tekanan darah adalah daya yang mengepam
darah sepanjang ateri dan kapilari.
• Apabila darah mengalir sepanjang salur, ia
memberi tekanan terhadap dinding salur
• Tekanan darah lebih tinggi dalam arteri
berbanding dalam vena.
• mengalir daripada kawasan bertekanan tinggi
ke bertekanan rendah.
• Semasa pengecutan ventrikel, tekanan darah
paling tinggi dalam aorta dan arteri besar
apabila darah dipam ke dalam aorta dan arteri
pulmonari.

43. Mekanisme kawal atur tekanan darah … cont.
• semasa rehat, seorang dewasa yg sihat
mempunyai tekanan darah pada 120/80
mmHg.
• Nilai pertama dikenali tekanan sistolik,
tekanan tertinggi direkod dalam arteri apabila
ventrikel mengecut.
• Nilai kedua, tekanan diastolik, tekanan
terendah dicatat semasa pengenduran
denyutan jantung.

44. Tekanan darah Elektronik

45. Perbezaan sistem peredaran
manusia, ikan dan amfibia.

46. Perbezaan sistem peredaran
manusia, ikan dan amfibia
kriteria manusia ikan Amfibia
Ganda dua tunggal Ganda dua
Lengkap - Tak Lengkap
4 ruang
Jantung
2 ruang
jantung
3 ruang
jantung

52. ProduceTrombokinase
Wound in skin
Platelet gather  StickyForms a
temporary plug
in leaking vessel
Fibrinogen
Fibrin
Forms the threads
of the clot
Later
Harden (scab)
Mechanism
of blood clotting
Need
Vitamin K
Trombokinase
Ion Calcium
ProthrombinThrombin

53. Whenever an injury occurs a chain reaction
is set off.
Wound in skin

54. Wound in skin
Platelets gather at a site of the injury and
become sticky
Platelet

55. Forming a temporary plug in the leaking
vessel
Wound in skin
Temporary plug

56. Prothrombin (non-active enzyme)
need ion calcium to convert into
thrombin.
Need
Vitamin K
Trombokinase
Ion Calcium
ProthrombinThrombin

57. Thread of clot
•Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen (plasma
protein formed by the liver) into insoluble fibrin.
•Fibrin forms the threads of the clot.
•A mesh-like network of fibrin traps red blood cells
together, forming the blood clot, which later
hardens into a scab.

58. Consequences of an impaired
Blood Clotting Mechanism
• Haemophilia is a hereditary disease due to the
lack of certain gene for the production of certain
clotting factors.
• This is an impaired clotting mechanism which
causes serious bleeding particularly in the joints.
• The afflicted person may die as a result of
excessive bleeding from even minor cuts and
bruises because blood clotting cannot take place.
Haemophilia

59. Consequences of an impaired Blood
Clotting Mechanism
• Sometimes a local blood clot (thrombus) is
formed on the damaged rough inner wall of
the artery. This may cause blockage of the
artery, a condition known as thrombosis.
• When a thrombus dislodges and is carried
away by blood circulation, it is known as an
embolus. The embolus may be trapped in a
small artery where it blocks the blood flow.
This condition is called embolism.
Thrombosis

60. Consequences of an impaired Blood
Clotting Mechanism
• The blocked coronary artery cuts off the
supply of oxygen and nutrients to the heart
muscles, hence causes heart attack.
Thrombosis

62. Formation of the Interstitial Fluid and Lymph
CO2O2

63. Formation of the Interstitial Fluid and Lymph
• When the blood flows from arteries into
capillaries, there is higher hydrostatic
pressure at the arterial end of the
capillaries.
• This high pressure forces some fluid out
through the capillary walls into the
intercellular spaces between the cells.
• Once the fluid leaves the capillary walls, it
is called interstitial or tissue fluid. The
interstitial fluids fills the spaces between
the cells and constantly bathes the cells.

64. Formation of the Interstitial Fluid and Lymph
• The interstitial fluid that has not been
reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into
the lymph capillaries. Once inside the
lymph capillaries, the fluid is known as
lymph.

65. Composition of the Interstitial Fluid
• The composition of the interstitial fluid
is similar to the blood plasma.
–Consists of water, dissolved nutrients,
hormones, waste products, gases, small
proteins and leucocytes.
–Has no erythrocytes, platelets and large
protein molecules (albumin, globulin and
fibrinogen)

66. Importance of the Interstitial Fluid
• Interstitial fluid is important because :
–It forms the internal environment of the
body.
–It bathes the cells and supplies them
with oxygen and nutrients which diffuse
from the blood through the interstitial
fluid into the cells.
–Excretory waste products (carbon
dioxide and urea) diffuse out of the cells
into the interstitial fluid.

67. Structure of the Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system is a one-way system
consisting of a network of lymph capillaries,
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes.
• The lymph capillaries are blind-ended tubes
located in the spaces between the cells.
• The interstitial fluid that has not been
reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into the
lymph capillaries. Once inside the lymph
capillaries, the fluid is known as lymph.

68. Structure of the Lymphatic System
• Lymph is the colourless fluid found in
the lymphatic vessels.
• Lymph capillaries converge into larger
lymphatic vessels.
• Lymph nodes are located at intervals
along the lymphatic vessels. The
lymph nodes produce lymphocytes
that help to protect the body against
infections.

69. Structure of the Lymphatic System
• Lymph contains a higher number of
lymphocytes than blood.
• Within the lymphatic vessels are one-
way valves to ensure the continuous
flow of the lymph to prevent the
backflow of the lymph.

70. The Relationship between the Lymphatic
System and Circulatory System
• Lymph is returned to the circulatory
system via the thoracic duct and the right
lymphatic duct.
• The vessels from the left side of the body
flow into the thoracic duct. The thoracic
duct is the largest lymphatic vessel in the
body that carries lymph to the left
subclavian vein back into the bloodstream.
• The right lymphatic duct transport lymph
from the right side of the head and chest
into the right subclavian vein.

71. Role of the Lymphatic System in Transport
• Collects the interstitial fluid and returns it
to the circulatory system.
• Fats and fat-soluble vitamins are absorb
through lacteals and transported to the
blood circulatory system.
• The lymph nodes filter out bacteria and
other foreign particles. Phagocytes
present in the nodes engulf and destroy
foreign particles.
• Lymphocytes produce antibodies which
aid in the destruction of pathogens and the
neutralization of toxins.

73. Defence system
specificNon specific
1st line 2nd line
3rd line
•Skin
•mucous
membrane
Phagocyte
Phagocytosis
lymphocyte antibody
passive active
naturalartificial natural artificial
immunisation
immunity
Divided into
Divided into is
through
produce
gives
Divided into
Divided into Divided into
are
Carry out
eg

74. ROLE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN THE BODY’S
DEFENCE SYSTEM
• Beside transport function, our circulatory system also
defends the body against disease abolition of the disease-
causing microorganisms or pathogens.
• There are three lines of defence mechanisms in our body:
– The first line of defence: prevention of pathogens
entering the body.
– The second line of defence: killing the pathogens that
entered our body by action or phagocytic white blood
cells.
– The third line of defence: killing the pathogens by means
of antibody actions.
Body’s Defence Mechanisms

75. • Prevention of pathogens entering the body by mean of
physical and chemical barriers.
• A non-specific defence, that is never differentiate among
various type of pathogens.
i. Skin
– As a physical barrier, skin is made up of a dead
keratinised layer, tough enough for pathogens to
penetrate.
– If there is a scratch or cut, the blood clots to seal the
wound and avoids infections.
– Also acts as chemical barrier as it secretes sweat
which contains salt. Sebaceous glands produce
sebum which contains acid and oil. All these
substances are unfavourable for growth of
microorganisms.
– Sweat also contain lysozyme which destroy
pathogens.
The First Line of Defence

76. ii. Tears and Saliva
– Contain lysozymes which protect the eyes
and mouth from pathogen invasion.
iii. Gastric juice in stomach
– Contain hydrochloric acid which destroys
most pathogens in foods and drinks taken.
iv. Mucous membranes
– Secrete mucus in nasal cavity and trachea to
trap the dust particles and spores.
– The cilia in the respiratory track sweep the
trapped particles to the pharynx and
stimulates sneeze or cough to expel out the
The First Line of Defence

77. • The killing action brought by some of the white
blood cells like neutrophil and monocyte. They
are called phagocytes and the process is
phagocytosis.
• It is also a non-specific defence.
• Phagocytosis occur when pathogens get through
the first line defence. Phagocytes move to the
infected area due to the stimulation by chemicals
released by damaged cells, example cut skin.
• Sometimes the phagocytes are killed by toxins
produced by the pathogens.
• Dead bacteria, tissue cells and phagocytes may
accumulate to form pus at the site of injury
The Second Line of Defence

78. • The steps involved in phagocytosis by a
phagocyte e.g. Neutrophil
pathoge
n
pseudopodiu
m
vacuole

79. • Neutrophil moves toward a bacterium by
using its pesudopodia.
• Pseudopodia elongate and surround the
bacterium.
• Neutrophil engulfs the bacterium to form a
vacuole.
• Enzymes (lysozyme) are released into the
vacuole to digest the pathogen.
• Useful product of digestion is the absorbed
and assimilated by phagocyte

80. • The third line of defence in the body is antibody.
• Antibody is a kind of protein released by
lymphocyte in response to the presence of foreign
substance, called antigen in our body.
• Lymphocytes are white blood cells found in lymph
nodes and in the blood circulatory system. There
are two types of lymphocytes, B-lymphocyte that
secretes antibodies and T-lymphocyte that helps
B-lymphocyte in antibody production.
• An antigen is a substance (usually protein)
normally found on the outer surface of pathogen.
Different types of pathogen act as different types
of antigen.
The Third Line of Defence

81. • The third line of defence is a specific defence
because when a specific antigen invades the
body, lymphocyte is stimulated and produces
specific antibody to destroy these specific
antigens.
• This response is known as immune response
because it resists the body from pathogens or
diseases.
• After any infection, some lymphocytes remain in
the body as memory cells which may last for
several months or years. This memory cells help
to defend the body against next infection by the
same antigen. During this period, someone is sad
The Third Line of Defence

82. • What is the mechanism used by antibodies to
destroy antigen?
– Antibody binds to the specific antigen
binding site
– Hence, inactivates antigen by several ways
The Third Line of Defence
Neutralisation
Antibody or antitoxin
coats the bacterial toxin or
viral binding sites

83. The Third Line of Defence
Agglutination
Agglutinates bacteria cell
and stops their moving
and stimulate
phagocytosis
Disintegration (lysis)
Breakdown the bacterial
cell wall.

84. The Third Line of Defence
Opsonisation
Attaches itself to the
bacteria surface and
stimulates phagocytosis.

85. AIDS
• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
• Caused by HIV – Human Immunodeficiency
Virus
• Attacks the central nervous system and
helper T-cells in the body’s immune system.
• Helper T-cells are essential to activate B-
cell lymphocyte in antibody production.
• HIV needs 8-10 years of incubation period
before the symptom appears.

86. AIDS
• The immune system of infected person
gradually becomes weakened and
defenceless against many pathogens.
• Decreases in function of central nervous
system followed by body weight loss.
• Eventually death occurs. The patient does
not die from AIDS itself but from other
secondary infections such as pneumonia
and meningitis, tuberculosis, fungal
infections or certain forms of cancer like
Kaposi’s sarcoma

87. AIDS – Transmission Methods
• HIV only survive in body fluid such as semen, blood and
vaginal fluid.
• Therefore, HIV can be transmitted through :
– sexual intercourse
– Blood transfusion
– Injection with contaminated needle used to inject
drugs
• HIV infected mother can pass HIV to her baby through
placenta or breast milk.
• HIV cannot be spread by touching, sharing of food or
through the use of public toilets.

88. Appreciating a Healthy Cardiovascular System
• Disorder of the heart and blood circulatory
system; hypertension, artherosclerosis,
coronary thrombosis, arteriosclerosis,
angina, stroke.
• Factors that contribute to cardiovascular
diseases;
– Obesity
– A diet high in saturated fat and cholesterol in
daily life and low in fibres.
– Salty foods
– Lack of exercise
– Cigarette smoking

89. Plants
Water & mineral Food
xylem phloem
Vascular
tissues
involves
stem root leaf
structure
translocation
need
Transported by
Relate to
Relate to
involves
Root
pressure
Transpirational pull
Factors
1. Air movement
2. Temperature
3. Light intensity
4. Relative humidity
Capillary
action
affecting
Transpiration
Results in
Found in