Chapter 5 Immunology
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T cells recognize antigens presented by MHC molecules on other cells. Antigens from intracellular sources such as viruses are processed and presented by MHC class I to CD8+ T cells. Antigens from extracellular sources such as bacteria that are endocytosed are processed and presented by MHC class II to CD4+ T cells. The antigen processing pathways and the classes of MHC molecules that present the peptides allow the immune system to mount appropriate responses targeting different types of pathogens.
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MHC-I, MHC-II & MHC-III
Major Histocompatibility Complex
MHC:
• Major Histocompatibility Complex
– Cluster of genes found in all mammals
– Its products play role in discriminating self/non-self
– Participant in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity
• MHC Act As Antigen Presenting Structures
• In Human MHC Is Found On Chromosome 6
– Referred to as HLA complex
• In Mice MHC Is Found On Chromosome 17
– Referred to as H-2 complex
• Genes Of MHC Organized In 3 Classes
– Class I MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on all nucleated cells
• Major function to present processed Ags to TC
– Class II MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on macrophages, B-cells, DCs
• Major function to present processed Ags to TH
– Class III MHC genes
• Products that include secreted proteins that have immune functions. Ex. Complement system, inflammatory molecules
ANTIGEN ( IMMUNOLOGY-1)
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IMMUNOLOGY KUBY, MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY & IMMUNOLOGY OF PANIKER , LIPPINCOTT'S IMMUNOLOGY, OTHER SOURCES.
T CELL ACTIVATION AND IT'S TERMINATION
T cell activation requires two signals: 1) recognition of antigens displayed on antigen-presenting cells by T cell receptors and 2) co-stimulatory signals through molecules like CD28. This leads T cells to proliferate, differentiate into effector and memory cells, and perform effector functions. Proper activation requires interaction between T cells and antigen-presenting cells in lymphoid tissues, where costimulatory molecules are highly expressed. Dysregulation of T cell activation can lead to autoimmunity or susceptibility to infection.
Activation of T and B Cells
1. The document presents information about T cells and B cells, including their development, activation, and functions.
2. T cells develop in the thymus gland and have roles in direct killing of infected cells and regulating the immune response. B cells mature in the bone marrow and produce antibodies to help fight pathogens.
3. Activation of both T and B cells involves interaction with antigen-presenting cells and costimulatory signals, leading to cell proliferation and differentiation into effector and memory cells.
B cell activation and antibody production
B cell activation and antibody productionChulalongkorn Allergy and Clinical Immunology Research Group
The document provides an overview of humoral immune responses, including B cell activation, antigen recognition, and antibody production. It discusses helper T cell-dependent antibody responses to protein antigens, outlining the key steps: initial activation and migration of B and T cells; antigen presentation; CD40L-CD40 interaction; extrafollicular B cell activation; the germinal center reaction involving follicular dendritic cells and follicular helper T cells; isotype switching; affinity maturation; plasma cell and memory B cell differentiation. The roles of cytokines, transcriptional regulators, and the SAP protein in T follicular helper cell generation and germinal center development are also summarized.Antibody gene rearrangement presentation
This document discusses the structure, properties, genetic organization, and genetic rearrangement of antibodies which allows for antibody diversity. It notes that antibodies are glycoproteins produced by plasma cells that recognize and bind antigens. Their genetic organization involves genes for heavy and light chains being located on different chromosomes, with multiple gene segments that undergo rearrangement. This rearrangement at the DNA and RNA level involves joining of V, D, and J genes for heavy chains and V and J genes for light chains, and splicing with C region genes to produce different antibody classes. This genetic rearrangement and splicing is essential for producing the antibody diversity needed to recognize a wide range of antigens.
T-Cell Mediated Immunity
T cells are activated through the recognition of antigen peptides presented on MHC complexes on antigen presenting cells (APCs). This leads to T cell proliferation and differentiation into effector T cells. Cytotoxic T cells recognize endogenous antigens on MHC I to kill infected cells, while helper T cells recognize exogenous peptides on MHC II and secrete cytokines to stimulate macrophage activation or B cell antibody production. Full T cell activation requires both antigen recognition by the TCR and co-stimulatory signaling between molecules such as B7 and CD28.
Antibody class switch ppt
Antibody class switching is a biological mechanism that changes a B cell's production of antibodies from one class to another, such as from IgM to IgG. It involves changing the constant region of the antibody heavy chain through DNA recombination, while retaining the same variable region and antigen specificity. Double-stranded breaks are generated in switch regions of DNA upstream of constant region genes. DNA is cleaved at two switch regions and the intervening DNA is deleted, allowing substitution of a different constant region exon and changing the class of antibody produced. The free DNA ends are joined by non-homologous end joining to link the variable region to the new constant region gene. This allows a B cell to produce different antibody classes while recognizing
Recommended
MHC-I, MHC-II & MHC-III
Major Histocompatibility Complex
MHC:
• Major Histocompatibility Complex
– Cluster of genes found in all mammals
– Its products play role in discriminating self/non-self
– Participant in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity
• MHC Act As Antigen Presenting Structures
• In Human MHC Is Found On Chromosome 6
– Referred to as HLA complex
• In Mice MHC Is Found On Chromosome 17
– Referred to as H-2 complex
• Genes Of MHC Organized In 3 Classes
– Class I MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on all nucleated cells
• Major function to present processed Ags to TC
– Class II MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on macrophages, B-cells, DCs
• Major function to present processed Ags to TH
– Class III MHC genes
• Products that include secreted proteins that have immune functions. Ex. Complement system, inflammatory molecules
ANTIGEN ( IMMUNOLOGY-1)
ANTIGEN, HAPTEN, ALL TYPES OF ANTIGENS, IMMUNOGEN , ATTRIBUTES OF ANTIGENICITY, DETERMINANTS OF ANTIGENICITY,
IMMUNOLOGY KUBY, MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY & IMMUNOLOGY OF PANIKER , LIPPINCOTT'S IMMUNOLOGY, OTHER SOURCES.
T CELL ACTIVATION AND IT'S TERMINATION
T cell activation requires two signals: 1) recognition of antigens displayed on antigen-presenting cells by T cell receptors and 2) co-stimulatory signals through molecules like CD28. This leads T cells to proliferate, differentiate into effector and memory cells, and perform effector functions. Proper activation requires interaction between T cells and antigen-presenting cells in lymphoid tissues, where costimulatory molecules are highly expressed. Dysregulation of T cell activation can lead to autoimmunity or susceptibility to infection.
Activation of T and B Cells
1. The document presents information about T cells and B cells, including their development, activation, and functions.
2. T cells develop in the thymus gland and have roles in direct killing of infected cells and regulating the immune response. B cells mature in the bone marrow and produce antibodies to help fight pathogens.
3. Activation of both T and B cells involves interaction with antigen-presenting cells and costimulatory signals, leading to cell proliferation and differentiation into effector and memory cells.
B cell activation and antibody production
B cell activation and antibody productionChulalongkorn Allergy and Clinical Immunology Research Group
The document provides an overview of humoral immune responses, including B cell activation, antigen recognition, and antibody production. It discusses helper T cell-dependent antibody responses to protein antigens, outlining the key steps: initial activation and migration of B and T cells; antigen presentation; CD40L-CD40 interaction; extrafollicular B cell activation; the germinal center reaction involving follicular dendritic cells and follicular helper T cells; isotype switching; affinity maturation; plasma cell and memory B cell differentiation. The roles of cytokines, transcriptional regulators, and the SAP protein in T follicular helper cell generation and germinal center development are also summarized.Antibody gene rearrangement presentation
This document discusses the structure, properties, genetic organization, and genetic rearrangement of antibodies which allows for antibody diversity. It notes that antibodies are glycoproteins produced by plasma cells that recognize and bind antigens. Their genetic organization involves genes for heavy and light chains being located on different chromosomes, with multiple gene segments that undergo rearrangement. This rearrangement at the DNA and RNA level involves joining of V, D, and J genes for heavy chains and V and J genes for light chains, and splicing with C region genes to produce different antibody classes. This genetic rearrangement and splicing is essential for producing the antibody diversity needed to recognize a wide range of antigens.
T-Cell Mediated Immunity
T cells are activated through the recognition of antigen peptides presented on MHC complexes on antigen presenting cells (APCs). This leads to T cell proliferation and differentiation into effector T cells. Cytotoxic T cells recognize endogenous antigens on MHC I to kill infected cells, while helper T cells recognize exogenous peptides on MHC II and secrete cytokines to stimulate macrophage activation or B cell antibody production. Full T cell activation requires both antigen recognition by the TCR and co-stimulatory signaling between molecules such as B7 and CD28.
Antibody class switch ppt
Antibody class switching is a biological mechanism that changes a B cell's production of antibodies from one class to another, such as from IgM to IgG. It involves changing the constant region of the antibody heavy chain through DNA recombination, while retaining the same variable region and antigen specificity. Double-stranded breaks are generated in switch regions of DNA upstream of constant region genes. DNA is cleaved at two switch regions and the intervening DNA is deleted, allowing substitution of a different constant region exon and changing the class of antibody produced. The free DNA ends are joined by non-homologous end joining to link the variable region to the new constant region gene. This allows a B cell to produce different antibody classes while recognizing
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The document summarizes the mechanism of V(D)J recombination and generation of antibody diversity. It discusses:
1) How V(D)J recombination involves rearrangement of one V, D (only in heavy chains), and J gene segment in B and T lymphocytes, bringing them under the control of regulatory elements.
2) The recognition signals and rearrangement process, which involves double stranded breaks and joining of coding ends.
3) The four main stages of V(D)J recombination - synapsis, cleavage, hairpin opening and end processing, and joining.
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Monoclonal And Polyclonal Antibody Production
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Humoral Immunity
- Naive B cells express IgM and IgD antibodies on their surface that recognize antigens. Upon activation, a single B cell can produce up to 10^12 antibody molecules per day through plasma cell differentiation.
- Repeated antigen exposure leads to affinity maturation through somatic hypermutation in germinal centers, increasing antibody affinity over time. Helper T cells are required for isotype switching and affinity maturation.
- Engagement of complement receptors and toll-like receptors enhances B cell activation and antibody production. Activated B cells also upregulate costimulators to amplify helper T cell responses.
tumor immunology.pptx
1. Tumors can be recognized by the immune system through tumor antigens including those encoded by oncogenic viruses, fetal antigens re-expressed in cancer, mutated self-genes, and overexpressed cellular proteins.
2. The immune system responds to tumor antigens through macrophages, NK cells, CTLs, and antibodies which can kill tumor cells.
3. However, tumors evade the immune response using mechanisms such as losing antigens, lacking MHC molecules, producing immunosuppressive factors, and inducing immune tolerance.
4. Cancer immunotherapy aims to stimulate anti-tumor immunity through techniques like vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, cell therapy, and immunostimulants.
T-cell
T-cells are a type of white blood cell that play a major role in the immune system by fighting infection. There are different types of T-cells that act in various ways to identify and destroy pathogens. T-cells mature in the thymus gland, where they develop receptors called TCRs that allow them to recognize antigens bound to MHC molecules on other cells. The MHC presents antigen fragments to T-cells to trigger an immune response against invading microbes.
Cd4 and cd8 cells by RK
CD4+ and CD8+ cells are types of T cells that are distinguished based on the presence of cell surface marker proteins called CD4 and CD8. CD4+ cells are helper T cells that recognize antigens presented by MHC class II molecules and help activate other immune cells. CD8+ cells are cytotoxic T cells that recognize antigens presented by MHC class I molecules and directly kill infected cells. The ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ cells provides information about immune system health, with a lower ratio potentially indicating conditions like HIV infection.
B cell Activation by T Independent & T Dependent Antigens-Dr C R Meera
During humoral immune response, Ab production is brought about by B lymphocytes. Based on the ability to induce Ab formation, antigens can be classified into T independent and T dependent antigens. Some antigens can directly induce the B cells to produce the Abs and are called T Independent Ans. However, some Ans require the help of T lymohocytes for the production of Abs from B cells. These Ans are called T Dependent Ans.
T Cell and its differentiation
T-cells are a type of white blood cell that play a major role in the immune system by fighting infection. There are different types of T-cells that act in various ways to identify and destroy pathogens. T-cells mature and develop in the thymus gland, where they are selected and educated to recognize the body's own cells and mount immune responses against foreign threats. T-cells recognize antigens presented on other cells through molecules of the major histocompatibility complex and are activated through a process that involves antigen presentation, costimulatory signals, and cytokine communication.
Antigen
Antigens are substances that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against them. They enter the body through various sites and are then captured and presented by antigen presenting cells. There are several types of antigens including immunogens, which induce immune responses; tolerogens, which induce tolerance; allergens; and vaccines. An antigen's ability to induce an immune response is called its immunogenicity, while its ability to bind antibodies is its antigenicity. Properties that influence immunogenicity include the antigen's foreignness, size, complexity, degradability, and the recipient's genotype and age. Administration methods like dosage, route, and use of adjuvants can also impact immunogenicity. Antigens are classified as complete if they have
BCR
This document discusses the B cell receptor (BCR) and its role in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The BCR is composed of immunoglobulin and Igα/Igβ proteins that transmit signals into cells. CLL results when too many B cells become abnormal lymphocytes. In CLL, tonic BCR signaling provides growth signals and plays a key role in disease progression. New drugs target proteins in the BCR pathway like Btk and Syk to block this signaling and stop cancer cell growth and division. Ibrutinib is an approved treatment that inhibits the BCR complex and brings hope to CLL patients.
Antigens & haptens
This document discusses antigens and haptens. It defines antigens as macromolecules that elicit an immune response through antibody formation. It classifies antigens as exogenous or endogenous, and further divides endogenous antigens. It distinguishes immunogenicity from antigenicity and defines haptens as low molecular weight compounds that are antigenic but not immunogenic unless coupled to a carrier protein. It provides examples of haptens and describes tests used to detect antigens and haptens.
Cytokines
Cytokines are low molecular weight proteins or peptides that are important signaling molecules that regulate immunity and inflammation. They act as intercellular messengers to regulate the intensity and duration of immune responses by binding to receptors on target cells. There are four main structural families of cytokines - hematopoietin receptor family, interferon receptor family, TNF receptor family, and chemokine receptor family. Cytokines can act through autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine signaling and activate signaling pathways like JAK-STAT. An imbalance in the levels of cytokines produced by TH1 and TH2 cells can lead to different disease outcomes. Cytokine-related diseases include septic shock, toxic shock syndrome, and some cancers and infections.
Tolerance & autoimmunity
1. Immune tolerance occurs when the immune system fails to respond to an antigen it has previously been exposed to, resulting in non-reactivity to that antigen. Tolerance is important for avoiding autoimmune reactions to self-antigens.
2. Tolerance can occur through several mechanisms, including clonal deletion of autoreactive T and B cells in the thymus and bone marrow, clonal anergy of autoreactive cells, ignorance of sequestered self-antigens, and receptor editing of B cells.
3. Autoimmunity results from a loss of self-tolerance and an immune response against self-components. It can be organ-specific or systemic. Causes of autoimmunity
Tcr class
T-cell receptors are heterodimers consisting of alpha and beta chains with variable and constant regions. The variable region binds to antigens presented by the major histocompatibility complex and contains complementary determining regions that provide specificity. While the TCR is responsible for antigen recognition, it does not signal within the cell itself. Signal transduction is carried out by the CD3 complex, which contains gamma, delta, epsilon, and zeta chains and lacks kinase activity.
Haptens
Haptens are small molecules that are antigenic but not immunogenic on their own. They are unable to induce an immune response because they cannot activate helper T cells due to their inability to bind MHC proteins or activate B cells directly as they are univalent. However, when haptens are covalently bound to a carrier protein, they form immunogenic conjugates that can induce an immune response by activating helper T cells and B cells. Pioneering work by Karl Landsteiner demonstrated that antibodies produced against hapten-carrier conjugates were specific for the hapten and carrier epitopes. Common examples of haptens include drug molecules, peptides, and steroids. Hapten-protein conjugates can cause drug
CLONAL SELECTION.PDF.pptx
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Antigen Presenting cells(APCs)
Antigen presenting cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells play a key role in activating T cells during an immune response. They process foreign antigens, display antigen fragments on MHC molecules, and present these to T cells. This initiation of T cell activation requires two signals: 1) antigen recognition by T cell receptors and 2) co-stimulatory signaling between molecules on the antigen presenting cell and T cell. Together, these signals trigger T cells to proliferate and carry out their immune functions in fighting pathogens or cancer cells.
T cell mediated immune response Rashmi PGI 2022
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T Cell Antigen Receptor
The document summarizes key aspects of T cell antigen receptor (TcR) structure and generation of diversity. It describes how TcR were discovered using monoclonal antibodies that recognize unique structures on T cell clones. TcR are heterodimers composed of α and β chains that are similar to antibody structures but do not undergo somatic hypermutation. TcR diversity is generated through combinatorial rearrangement of variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) gene segments, as well as junctional diversity from imprecise joining and addition of untemplated nucleotides.
Antigen recognition by t lymphocytes
T cells recognize antigens through their T cell receptor, which is composed of two different chains and has one antigen-binding site. During T cell development in the thymus, gene rearrangement produces variability in the variable regions of the T cell receptor to recognize a wide range of antigens. When a T cell is stimulated by its antigen, there is no further mutation or switching of immunoglobulin constant region isotypes. T cell receptors function solely as antigen recognition molecules on the cell surface.
Tcr development and evaluation
The document discusses T cell receptor development and evaluation methods. It provides an overview of T cell development including the development of alpha beta and gamma delta T cells from germline genes. It also discusses the rearrangement of variable, diversity, and joining domains in T cell receptor genes. Evaluation methods discussed include CDR3 length analysis using immunoscope technology, clonotypic TCR tracking through peptide stimulation and sorting of T cells, and microarray analysis of beta chain repertoire.
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Presentation of-immunoregulation-full-research
This document discusses immunoregulation and the various mechanisms that regulate immune responses. It describes how regulatory mechanisms act at all phases of the immune response, including recognition, activation, and effector function. Cytokines and regulatory T cells are highlighted as key regulators that can either stimulate or inhibit immune responses. The role of genetic factors in influencing immunoregulation is also summarized, noting genes related to immunoglobulins, T-cell receptors, and MHC complexes.
Mechanism of vd(j) recombination and generation of antibody diversity
The document summarizes the mechanism of V(D)J recombination and generation of antibody diversity. It discusses:
1) How V(D)J recombination involves rearrangement of one V, D (only in heavy chains), and J gene segment in B and T lymphocytes, bringing them under the control of regulatory elements.
2) The recognition signals and rearrangement process, which involves double stranded breaks and joining of coding ends.
3) The four main stages of V(D)J recombination - synapsis, cleavage, hairpin opening and end processing, and joining.
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Monoclonal And Polyclonal Antibody Production
Antibodies are proteins produced by plasma cells that bind to specific antigens. Monoclonal antibodies bind to a single epitope of an antigen, whereas polyclonal antibodies bind to multiple epitopes. Monoclonal antibodies are produced through cell fusion, where antibody-producing spleen cells are fused with myeloma cells to form immortal hybridoma cell lines that each secrete a single antibody clone. This process allows continuous production of homogeneous antibodies against a specific epitope. In contrast, polyclonal antibodies come from antiserum containing a heterogeneous mixture of antibodies against multiple epitopes on an antigen.
Humoral Immunity
- Naive B cells express IgM and IgD antibodies on their surface that recognize antigens. Upon activation, a single B cell can produce up to 10^12 antibody molecules per day through plasma cell differentiation.
- Repeated antigen exposure leads to affinity maturation through somatic hypermutation in germinal centers, increasing antibody affinity over time. Helper T cells are required for isotype switching and affinity maturation.
- Engagement of complement receptors and toll-like receptors enhances B cell activation and antibody production. Activated B cells also upregulate costimulators to amplify helper T cell responses.
tumor immunology.pptx
1. Tumors can be recognized by the immune system through tumor antigens including those encoded by oncogenic viruses, fetal antigens re-expressed in cancer, mutated self-genes, and overexpressed cellular proteins.
2. The immune system responds to tumor antigens through macrophages, NK cells, CTLs, and antibodies which can kill tumor cells.
3. However, tumors evade the immune response using mechanisms such as losing antigens, lacking MHC molecules, producing immunosuppressive factors, and inducing immune tolerance.
4. Cancer immunotherapy aims to stimulate anti-tumor immunity through techniques like vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, cell therapy, and immunostimulants.
T-cell
T-cells are a type of white blood cell that play a major role in the immune system by fighting infection. There are different types of T-cells that act in various ways to identify and destroy pathogens. T-cells mature in the thymus gland, where they develop receptors called TCRs that allow them to recognize antigens bound to MHC molecules on other cells. The MHC presents antigen fragments to T-cells to trigger an immune response against invading microbes.
Cd4 and cd8 cells by RK
CD4+ and CD8+ cells are types of T cells that are distinguished based on the presence of cell surface marker proteins called CD4 and CD8. CD4+ cells are helper T cells that recognize antigens presented by MHC class II molecules and help activate other immune cells. CD8+ cells are cytotoxic T cells that recognize antigens presented by MHC class I molecules and directly kill infected cells. The ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ cells provides information about immune system health, with a lower ratio potentially indicating conditions like HIV infection.
B cell Activation by T Independent & T Dependent Antigens-Dr C R Meera
During humoral immune response, Ab production is brought about by B lymphocytes. Based on the ability to induce Ab formation, antigens can be classified into T independent and T dependent antigens. Some antigens can directly induce the B cells to produce the Abs and are called T Independent Ans. However, some Ans require the help of T lymohocytes for the production of Abs from B cells. These Ans are called T Dependent Ans.
T Cell and its differentiation
T-cells are a type of white blood cell that play a major role in the immune system by fighting infection. There are different types of T-cells that act in various ways to identify and destroy pathogens. T-cells mature and develop in the thymus gland, where they are selected and educated to recognize the body's own cells and mount immune responses against foreign threats. T-cells recognize antigens presented on other cells through molecules of the major histocompatibility complex and are activated through a process that involves antigen presentation, costimulatory signals, and cytokine communication.
Antigen
Antigens are substances that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against them. They enter the body through various sites and are then captured and presented by antigen presenting cells. There are several types of antigens including immunogens, which induce immune responses; tolerogens, which induce tolerance; allergens; and vaccines. An antigen's ability to induce an immune response is called its immunogenicity, while its ability to bind antibodies is its antigenicity. Properties that influence immunogenicity include the antigen's foreignness, size, complexity, degradability, and the recipient's genotype and age. Administration methods like dosage, route, and use of adjuvants can also impact immunogenicity. Antigens are classified as complete if they have
BCR
This document discusses the B cell receptor (BCR) and its role in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The BCR is composed of immunoglobulin and Igα/Igβ proteins that transmit signals into cells. CLL results when too many B cells become abnormal lymphocytes. In CLL, tonic BCR signaling provides growth signals and plays a key role in disease progression. New drugs target proteins in the BCR pathway like Btk and Syk to block this signaling and stop cancer cell growth and division. Ibrutinib is an approved treatment that inhibits the BCR complex and brings hope to CLL patients.
Antigens & haptens
This document discusses antigens and haptens. It defines antigens as macromolecules that elicit an immune response through antibody formation. It classifies antigens as exogenous or endogenous, and further divides endogenous antigens. It distinguishes immunogenicity from antigenicity and defines haptens as low molecular weight compounds that are antigenic but not immunogenic unless coupled to a carrier protein. It provides examples of haptens and describes tests used to detect antigens and haptens.
Cytokines
Cytokines are low molecular weight proteins or peptides that are important signaling molecules that regulate immunity and inflammation. They act as intercellular messengers to regulate the intensity and duration of immune responses by binding to receptors on target cells. There are four main structural families of cytokines - hematopoietin receptor family, interferon receptor family, TNF receptor family, and chemokine receptor family. Cytokines can act through autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine signaling and activate signaling pathways like JAK-STAT. An imbalance in the levels of cytokines produced by TH1 and TH2 cells can lead to different disease outcomes. Cytokine-related diseases include septic shock, toxic shock syndrome, and some cancers and infections.
Tolerance & autoimmunity
1. Immune tolerance occurs when the immune system fails to respond to an antigen it has previously been exposed to, resulting in non-reactivity to that antigen. Tolerance is important for avoiding autoimmune reactions to self-antigens.
2. Tolerance can occur through several mechanisms, including clonal deletion of autoreactive T and B cells in the thymus and bone marrow, clonal anergy of autoreactive cells, ignorance of sequestered self-antigens, and receptor editing of B cells.
3. Autoimmunity results from a loss of self-tolerance and an immune response against self-components. It can be organ-specific or systemic. Causes of autoimmunity
Tcr class
T-cell receptors are heterodimers consisting of alpha and beta chains with variable and constant regions. The variable region binds to antigens presented by the major histocompatibility complex and contains complementary determining regions that provide specificity. While the TCR is responsible for antigen recognition, it does not signal within the cell itself. Signal transduction is carried out by the CD3 complex, which contains gamma, delta, epsilon, and zeta chains and lacks kinase activity.
Haptens
Haptens are small molecules that are antigenic but not immunogenic on their own. They are unable to induce an immune response because they cannot activate helper T cells due to their inability to bind MHC proteins or activate B cells directly as they are univalent. However, when haptens are covalently bound to a carrier protein, they form immunogenic conjugates that can induce an immune response by activating helper T cells and B cells. Pioneering work by Karl Landsteiner demonstrated that antibodies produced against hapten-carrier conjugates were specific for the hapten and carrier epitopes. Common examples of haptens include drug molecules, peptides, and steroids. Hapten-protein conjugates can cause drug
CLONAL SELECTION.PDF.pptx
Clonal selection theory illustrates how immunological memory permits a rapid response upon a second exposure to an antigen
Antigen Presenting cells(APCs)
Antigen presenting cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells play a key role in activating T cells during an immune response. They process foreign antigens, display antigen fragments on MHC molecules, and present these to T cells. This initiation of T cell activation requires two signals: 1) antigen recognition by T cell receptors and 2) co-stimulatory signaling between molecules on the antigen presenting cell and T cell. Together, these signals trigger T cells to proliferate and carry out their immune functions in fighting pathogens or cancer cells.
T cell mediated immune response Rashmi PGI 2022
T cell-mediated immune response explained with basics of T cell development, activation, and differentiation
T Cell Antigen Receptor
The document summarizes key aspects of T cell antigen receptor (TcR) structure and generation of diversity. It describes how TcR were discovered using monoclonal antibodies that recognize unique structures on T cell clones. TcR are heterodimers composed of α and β chains that are similar to antibody structures but do not undergo somatic hypermutation. TcR diversity is generated through combinatorial rearrangement of variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) gene segments, as well as junctional diversity from imprecise joining and addition of untemplated nucleotides.
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Antigen recognition by t lymphocytes
T cells recognize antigens through their T cell receptor, which is composed of two different chains and has one antigen-binding site. During T cell development in the thymus, gene rearrangement produces variability in the variable regions of the T cell receptor to recognize a wide range of antigens. When a T cell is stimulated by its antigen, there is no further mutation or switching of immunoglobulin constant region isotypes. T cell receptors function solely as antigen recognition molecules on the cell surface.
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The document discusses T cell receptor development and evaluation methods. It provides an overview of T cell development including the development of alpha beta and gamma delta T cells from germline genes. It also discusses the rearrangement of variable, diversity, and joining domains in T cell receptor genes. Evaluation methods discussed include CDR3 length analysis using immunoscope technology, clonotypic TCR tracking through peptide stimulation and sorting of T cells, and microarray analysis of beta chain repertoire.
The development of t lymphocytes
T cells develop from progenitor cells in the thymus through a multi-step process involving gene rearrangement, expression of cell surface markers, and positive and negative selection. Immature thymocytes first express no cell surface markers, then either CD4 or CD8 alone, before maturing into cells that express either CD4 or CD8. Only those cells that interact with self-MHC molecules through their receptors survive positive selection, while cells reacting too strongly to self-antigens undergo negative selection. Mature naive T cells then exit the thymus to secondary lymphoid tissues and circulate in the blood until encountering their specific antigen.
MHC and TCR
The document summarizes key aspects of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and T cell receptor (TCR) recognition. It discusses how MHC genes were found to be important in transplant rejection and immune responses. There are three classes of MHC molecules - Class I found on nucleated cells, Class II on antigen presenting cells, and Class III molecules like complement components. The TCR recognizes antigen peptides bound to MHC molecules. Both MHC and TCR are highly polymorphic and recognize antigens in a MHC-restricted manner.
Antigen Presentation and Processing
The document summarizes antigen processing and presentation by cells. It describes how T lymphocytes recognize short peptide antigens displayed by MHC molecules on antigen-presenting cells. Dendritic cells are specialized to capture antigens through receptors and transport them to lymph nodes for presentation to T cells. Proteins are broken down by proteasomes and cathepsins into peptides that bind MHC class I and class II, respectively, for recognition by CD8+ and CD4+ T cells.
T cells and b-cells
The document discusses T cells and B cells. It explains that T cells mature in the thymus gland and recognize antigens bound to MHC molecules, while B cells mature in the bone marrow and recognize free antigens. The document then describes the processes of T cell and B cell activation, differentiation, positive and negative selection, and how they contribute differently to the adaptive immune response.
Major histocompatibility complex
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a cluster of genes found in all mammals that encodes proteins important for the immune system to distinguish self from non-self. MHC molecules are expressed on the cell surface and present peptide antigens to T cells. There are three main classes of MHC genes - class I presents endogenous peptides to cytotoxic T cells, class II presents exogenous peptides to helper T cells, and class III encodes non-antigen presenting proteins involved in immunity. MHC molecules have binding sites that allow them to bind a variety of peptide antigens through anchor residues, helping the immune system recognize a diverse array of pathogens. Polymorphism of MHC alleles within populations helps provide protection against rapidly mutating pathogens.
Imm8e ch06 dup
The chapter discusses how antigens are presented to T lymphocytes. Antigens must be processed and presented on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules for recognition by T cell receptors. Antigen-presenting cells internalize and break down antigens into peptides that are then loaded onto MHC class I or class II molecules and expressed on the cell surface for surveillance by CD8+ or CD4+ T cells respectively.
Format 2016: masqueradesyndromes in allergicdiseases.
This document discusses masquerade syndromes in allergic diseases. It describes how primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) can often present with symptoms that mimic common allergic conditions like eczema. Two examples of PIDs that frequently masquerade as allergies are discussed in detail - Omenn syndrome, a rare form of severe combined immunodeficiency that typically appears in infancy as erythroderma and diarrhea; and IPEX syndrome, an X-linked condition causing diarrhea, polyendocrinopathy, and fatal infections in male infants. The document emphasizes that a PID should be considered for patients with allergic-like symptoms that are treatment-resistant or associated with unusual clinical features.
Chapter 6 Immunology
The development of B cells progresses through six stages defined by the rearrangement and expression of immunoglobulin genes in the bone marrow and secondary lymphoid tissues. In the bone marrow, B cells undergo successive gene rearrangements of the heavy and light chain loci, with productive rearrangements allowing the cells to progress while unproductive rearrangements may lead to additional rearrangements or cell death if none are productive. Expression of rearranged immunoglobulin genes terminates further rearrangement and allows the cells to mature and migrate to secondary lymphoid tissues to complete development.
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that acts as an elite defense when infections overwhelm other white blood cells. Each lymphocyte carries antibodies to fight germs. When germs outnumber antibodies in the body, lymphocytes need help in the form of vaccination to produce more antibodies and allow lymphocytes to defeat the germs.
Immunology Chapter 9
The document summarizes key concepts about B cell-mediated immunity and antibody production. It discusses how antibodies bind pathogens and recruit immune cells to destroy them. It describes the development of B cells and their need for T cell help to mature and produce high-affinity antibodies. Certain pathogens can activate B cells without T cell help due to repetitive epitopes that extensively crosslink B cell receptors. The germinal center is identified as a specialized microenvironment where B cells undergo proliferation, somatic hypermutation, and affinity maturation to produce high-affinity antibodies.
Lymphocyte production and maturation
Lymphocytes develop and mature through distinct stages in primary and secondary lymphoid tissues. In primary tissues like the bone marrow and thymus, lymphocyte progenitors undergo lineage commitment and maturation. A small percentage then migrate to secondary tissues like lymph nodes and spleen where antigen stimulation drives proliferation. T cells mature in the thymus while B cells mature in the bone marrow, undergoing gene rearrangement and expressing specific surface markers at different stages to eventually produce mature, circulating T and B cells. Lymphocytes recirculate between lymphoid tissues throughout the body and have varying life spans, with the majority lasting 4 years but some up to 20 years.
Immunology chapter 8
Upon encountering antigen, naive T cells are activated and differentiate into effector T cells. Dendritic cells carry antigens from infection sites to secondary lymphoid tissues where they present antigen to naive T cells. Naive T cells recirculate through secondary lymphoid tissues via blood and lymph and encounter antigen on antigen presenting cells, leading to their activation and differentiation. Cell adhesion molecules and chemokines mediate the trafficking of naive T cells to secondary lymphoid tissues where they can encounter antigen.
Lymphocytes
This document summarizes the development and functions of T and B lymphocytes. It discusses how they develop from stem cells in the bone marrow or thymus, and how T cells undergo selection processes in the thymus. It describes the roles of cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and B cells, and how B cells differentiate and produce antibodies. The document also provides a brief overview of HIV/AIDS, including the virus structure and life cycle.
Ag presentation & role of mhc somu
Antigen processing and presentation and role of major histocompatibility complex molecules- Dr Somshekhar Hogtapur, PhD Scholor, Dept Of Microbiology, Vety college Bangaluru, India
Antigen processing & presentation
1. Antigen processing and presentation involves degradation of antigens into peptides, association of peptides with MHC molecules, and display of peptide-MHC complexes on the cell surface for recognition by T cells.
2. There are two main pathways of antigen processing - exogenous antigens that enter the cell are processed through the endocytic pathway while endogenous antigens are processed through the cytosolic pathway.
3. In the cytosolic pathway, antigens are degraded by the proteasome and transported by TAP into the ER where they can bind to MHC class I molecules. In the endocytic pathway, exogenous antigens internalized into vesicles are degraded into peptides that bind MHC class II molecules.
HLA and antigen presentation
HLA refers to Human Leukocyte Antigens. HLA forms part of the major Histocompatibility complex (MHC)
monoclonal antibodies and engineered antibodies
This document provides an overview of monoclonal antibodies and engineered antibodies. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of monoclonal versus polyclonal antibodies. Production methods like hybridoma technology and fermentation are described. Problems associated with monoclonal antibody therapy like HAMA response are covered. Applications in diagnosis, therapy and analytical uses are mentioned. Finally, the document discusses engineering antibodies by modifying regions to reduce immunogenicity and enhance functions.
Primary immunodeficiency
This document discusses primary immunodeficiencies, which are a group of genetically determined disorders characterized by impaired immune response. It defines several types of primary immunodeficiencies including SCID, XLA, DiGeorge syndrome, Ataxia-teleangectesia, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, and CGD. For each, it describes the genetic cause, characteristic infections, clinical features, and available therapies. The document provides an overview of primary immunodeficiencies for educational purposes.
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Format 2016: masqueradesyndromes in allergicdiseases.
Format 2016: masqueradesyndromes in allergicdiseases.
Similar to Chapter 5 Immunology
tcelldebasish.ppt
The T cell receptor (TCR) is a heterodimer found on T lymphocytes that recognizes antigens bound to MHC molecules. It consists of either an alpha and beta chain or a gamma and delta chain. The TCR is associated with the CD3 complex consisting of five proteins that are necessary for cell surface expression and signal transduction. TCRs are generated through V(D)J recombination of gene segments and provide diversity to recognize a wide range of antigens. T cell activation requires recognition of antigen-MHC by the TCR along with co-stimulatory signals through molecules like CD28.
4. Nature of T cell B cell receptors.pptx
The document discusses T cell and B cell antigen receptors. It describes:
1) The T cell receptor is a heterodimer of either an α and β chain or γ and δ chain, with approximately 105 receptors on the cell surface associated with the CD3 complex for signal transduction.
2) The αβ heterodimer is most common in human and mouse T cells. TCR chains have variable and constant domains similar to immunoglobulins.
3) B cell receptors are composed of a membrane-bound immunoglobulin plus the Ig-α and Ig-β heterodimer, which have cytoplasmic tails that interact with signaling molecules unlike the short immunoglobulin tails.
T and b cells
1. Hematopoietic stem cells give rise to common lymphoid progenitors which differentiate into pro-B and pro-T cells.
2. Commitment to the B or T cell lineage is regulated by distinct transcription factors and cytokines direct proliferation of early lymphocytes.
3. Positive and negative selection during maturation ensure lymphocytes express functional receptors with low self-reactivity.
Mhc
The document discusses major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs), which are glycoproteins found on cell surfaces that present antigen fragments to T cells. It describes MHC Class I and Class II molecules, which present antigens from intracellular and extracellular pathogens, respectively. MHC genes were first identified as important in tissue graft rejection and show high polymorphism between individuals.
Mhc.anu
The document discusses the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which consists of glycoproteins found on cell surfaces that present antigens to T cells. MHC molecules are divided into class I and class II. Class I molecules are found on all nucleated cells and present antigens to CD8+ T cells, while class II molecules are found on antigen-presenting cells and present antigens to CD4+ T cells. The MHC was first identified as important for tissue graft compatibility.
Chapter 9 Basic immunology ppts DZ 2010.ppt
This document summarizes key concepts about T cell maturation, activation, and differentiation from Chapter 9. It describes how T cells mature in the thymus through positive and negative selection to recognize antigen only in the context of self-MHC. The structure and role of the T cell receptor and accessory molecules like CD4, CD8, and CD3 in antigen recognition and signal transduction are also summarized. Finally, it discusses the requirements for T cell activation, including engagement of the TCR with antigen/MHC and costimulatory molecules.
Adaptive immunity
The document discusses adaptive immunity and the specific immune response. It describes how adaptive immunity provides lifelong protective immunity through antigen-specific responses that are mediated by lymphocytes, including B cells, T cells, helper T cells, and killer T cells. Lymphocytes have antigen receptors like the B cell receptor and T cell receptor that provide specificity. The adaptive immune response develops over a person's lifetime through somatic recombination and clonal selection that generates a diverse repertoire of lymphocytes each with a unique receptor.
Major Histocompatibility Complex
Some potential causes of the immune system attacking the self in autoimmune diseases include:
- Genetic predisposition - Genes coding for the variety of MHC molecules can influence susceptibility. A T cell's ability to respond is determined by MHC genotype. Differences in MHC alleles' ability to present autoantigens can play a role.
- Environmental triggers - Factors like infections, drugs, trauma, etc. may trigger autoimmunity in genetically susceptible individuals by molecular mimicry or other mechanisms.
- Loss of tolerance - Failure to eliminate self-reactive lymphocytes during development or maintain peripheral tolerance can allow self-reactivity.
- Hormonal factors - Many autoimmune diseases are more common in women and fluctuate with horm
Central immunological tolerance
immunological tolerance can be divided into two parts. they are central tolerance and peripheral tolerance. this slide contains information on development of central tolerance which include both B cell and T cell central tolerance.
Hla typing and its role in tissue transplantation
This document discusses HLA typing and its role in tissue transplantation. It begins by introducing the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and its role in transplant rejection. It then describes MHC polymorphism, HLA nomenclature, and various methods for HLA typing including serology and molecular techniques. The document concludes by discussing the applications of HLA typing in organ transplantation, including the mechanisms of allograft recognition and rejection.
Mhc lecture notes
The document discusses the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which plays a key role in immune response and organ transplantation. It describes the structure of MHC class I and II molecules, which present peptide fragments to T cells. MHC molecules are highly polymorphic and this variability allows recognition of diverse pathogens. The T cell receptor engages peptide-MHC complexes and accessory molecules provide costimulatory signals for T cell activation. Certain MHC alleles are associated with increased risk of various autoimmune diseases.
Diversity in receptor and Immunoglobulin [Autosaved].pptx
The document summarizes the generation of diversity in B and T cell receptors through various mechanisms during lymphocyte development and maturation. It discusses:
1) Variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) gene segments that undergo rearrangement and recombination to generate a diverse repertoire of antigen receptors.
2) Combinatorial diversity through random combinations of rearranged gene segments.
3) Junctional diversity introduced by addition or deletion of nucleotides at junctions.
4) Somatic hypermutation that further diversifies variable regions within germinal centers.
T CELL RECEPTOR.pptx
The T cell receptor (TCR) is a protein complex found on the surface of T cells that is responsible for recognizing fragments of antigen bound to MHC molecules. It consists of an alpha and beta chain, with 95% of T cells containing these chains and 5% containing gamma and delta chains instead. Each chain contains a variable region that binds the peptide-MHC complex and a constant region near the cell membrane. The variable regions contain three hypervariable complementarity-determining regions important for antigen recognition. The TCR is associated with CD3 proteins that transmit activation signals into the T cell upon peptide binding. TCR diversity arises from genetic recombination of DNA segments during T cell development.
T Cell Antigen Receptor
The document summarizes key aspects of T cell antigen receptor (TcR) discovery and structure:
1) TcR were discovered through making monoclonal antibodies against the antigen receptor of cloned T cells, which led to identifying the TcR alpha and beta chains.
2) TcR genes rearrange through somatic recombination similar to immunoglobulin genes, generating diversity through combinations of variable, diversity and joining gene segments.
3) Junctional diversity is introduced through addition of non-templated and palindromic nucleotides during the recombination process.
Pharm immuno5-6serv adaptive immune response ag-ab
This document summarizes key concepts related to the adaptive immune response and antibodies. It defines terms like antigenicity, immunogenicity, haptens, and antigenic determinants. It describes how antigens are captured and presented by antigen-presenting cells to T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. It also explains monoclonal and polyclonal antibody production, the primary and secondary antibody response, affinity and avidity, and how antibodies provide diversity through their variable regions.
Biology of t lymphocytes
This document summarizes T lymphocyte development and activation. It describes how progenitor cells commit to the T cell lineage in the bone marrow and thymus. In the thymus, T cells undergo proliferation, rearrangement of T cell receptor genes, and positive and negative selection. This results in functionally distinct T cell subsets that migrate to lymph nodes upon activation. T cell activation requires three signals - engagement of the T cell receptor by peptide-MHC complexes, costimulatory molecules such as CD28 binding to B7, and cytokine signals. This leads to intracellular signaling cascades and expression of genes regulating T cell effector function.
Immunochemistry cell-mediated immunity
Cell-mediated immunity operates through T lymphocytes that recognize antigens presented on self-cells. There are four main types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells that destroy infected cells, helper T cells that activate other immune cells, suppressor T cells that shut down immune responses after infection is cleared, and memory T cells that help mount rapid responses upon re-exposure to pathogens. T cells express T cell receptors that recognize antigens bound to MHC proteins on surfaces of infected cells. Recognition of foreign peptides activates immune responses that eliminate pathogens.
Antigen
This document discusses antigen receptors and antigen recognition by lymphocytes. It describes the antigen receptors on B cells (BCR) and T cells (TCR) which are multiprotein complexes that recognize antigens. The BCR is located on the surface of B cells and secretes antibodies, while the TCR is found on T cells and recognizes antigens bound to MHC molecules. MHC molecules display antigen peptides to T cells and are involved in antigen presentation, with MHC class I presenting peptides to CD8+ T cells and MHC class II presenting peptides to CD4+ T cells.
Antigens, hapteins, immunogens lectures 10.1.06
An antigen is any substance that reacts with lymphocytes, while immunogens generate immune responses. Haptens are small molecules that require coupling to carriers to induce responses. Antibody-antigen binding depends on weak interactions between sites on antibodies and epitopes on antigens. Antibodies are produced with a wide variety of binding sites to recognize different antigenic determinants. Factors like foreignness, size, structure, and route of administration influence a substance's immunogenicity.
Lymphocytes
1) The document discusses the lymphatic and immune systems, including lymphoid organs, lymphocytes, antigen presentation, and the major histocompatibility complex.
2) It describes T lymphocyte development and function, including the roles of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.
3) The roles of B lymphocytes and antibody production are summarized.
Similar to Chapter 5 Immunology (20)
Diversity in receptor and Immunoglobulin [Autosaved].pptx
Diversity in receptor and Immunoglobulin [Autosaved].pptx
Pharm immuno5-6serv adaptive immune response ag-ab
Pharm immuno5-6serv adaptive immune response ag-ab
More from Sarah Davies
Chapter 2 Immunology
The document summarizes key aspects of innate immunity in 3 paragraphs or less:
Innate immunity provides the first line of defense against pathogens and includes physical barriers and fixed mechanisms that are always ready. It responds immediately through mechanisms like antimicrobial peptides, complement proteins that tag pathogens, and pattern recognition receptors on macrophages that help clear infections. Phagocytes like macrophages and neutrophils work to eliminate invading pathogens through receptors, phagocytosis, and secretion of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines to recruit more immune cells. Together the fixed and cellular defenses of innate immunity function to quickly control infections before the adaptive immune response is deployed.
Oganic II - Klein - chapter 22
This document introduces reactions that take place at the alpha carbon of carbonyl compounds. It discusses enols and enolates, which are reactive intermediates that allow substitutions and additions to occur at the alpha carbon. Specifically, it covers alpha halogenation, aldol reactions, and aldol condensations. These reactions are important methods to form carbon-carbon bonds and install functional groups at the alpha position of carbonyls.
Organic Chemistry Chapter 21 Klein
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Immunology Chapter 7
The development of T cells involves three main stages:
1) Gene rearrangement in the thymus produces the primary repertoire of T cell receptors.
2) Positive and negative selection act on this primary repertoire to produce mature, naive T cells that are self-tolerant but responsive to foreign antigens.
3) Mature T cells exit the thymus into secondary lymphoid tissues like lymph nodes and the spleen.
Organic Chemistry II Ch 21 Klein
- Carboxylic acids and their derivatives are abundant in nature and important in organic chemistry. Carboxylic acids are named with the suffix "oic acid" and can form salts with bases via deprotonation.
- Carboxylic acid derivatives include acid halides, anhydrides, esters, amides, and nitriles. They are generally more reactive electrophiles than the parent carboxylic acid due to factors such as improved induction, resonance effects, sterics, and the quality of the leaving group.
- Nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions of carboxylic acid derivatives proceed through a tetrahedral intermediate. The mechanism depends on the reaction conditions, and may involve one or more
Chapter20ppt
This document summarizes art from the Pacific, Mesoamerica, and North America. It includes descriptions of 3 masks from Papua New Guinea called Duk Duk Maskers, stone figures from Easter Island called Ahu Naunau, and a feather cloak from Hawaii. For Mesoamerica, it mentions a large Olmec head from Mexico, the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan, and a limestone sarcophagus lid from Palenque, Mexico. For North America, it describes a tabbed skin bag from the Ottawa culture, a hide painted with warfare scenes from the Lakota, and a bowl with mountain sheep imagery from the Mimbres people in New Mexico.
Chapter20ppt
This document summarizes art from the Pacific, Mesoamerica, and North America. It includes descriptions of 3 masks from Papua New Guinea called Duk Duk Maskers, stone figures from Easter Island called Ahu Naunau, and a feather cloak from Hawaii. For Mesoamerica, it mentions a large Olmec head from Mexico, the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan, and a limestone sarcophagus lid from Palenque, Mexico. For North America, it describes a tabbed skin bag from the Ottawa culture, a hide painted with warfare scenes from the Lakota, and a bowl with mountain sheep imagery from the Mimbres peoples in New Mexico.
Chapter Twenty
The document summarizes arts from the Pacific and Americas, including a Duk Duk mask from Papua New Guinea, stone figures from Easter Island, and a feather cloak from Hawaii in the British Museum. In Mesoamerica, it describes a colossal Olmec head from Mexico, the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan, and a Maya sarcophagus lid from Palenque, Mexico dated to 684 CE. It incorrectly mentions Deku Scrubs from a video game and St. Joseph's Church with the Pyramid of the Sun.
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3. Practical demonstrations
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Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
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みなさんこんにちはこれ何文字まで入るの？40文字以下不可とか本当に意味わからないけどこれ限界文字数書いてないからマジでやばい文字数いけるんじゃないの？えこ...
ここ3000字までしか入らないけどタイトルの方がたくさん文字入ると思います。
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GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracy
Driving Business Innovation: Latest Generative AI Advancements & Success Story
Driving Business Innovation: Latest Generative AI Advancements & Success Story
Unlock the Future of Search with MongoDB Atlas_ Vector Search Unleashed.pdf
Unlock the Future of Search with MongoDB Atlas_ Vector Search Unleashed.pdf
GraphSummit Singapore | The Art of the Possible with Graph - Q2 2024
GraphSummit Singapore | The Art of the Possible with Graph - Q2 2024
Presentation of the OECD Artificial Intelligence Review of Germany
Presentation of the OECD Artificial Intelligence Review of Germany
Goodbye Windows 11: Make Way for Nitrux Linux 3.5.0!
Goodbye Windows 11: Make Way for Nitrux Linux 3.5.0!
National Security Agency - NSA mobile device best practices
National Security Agency - NSA mobile device best practices
Climate Impact of Software Testing at Nordic Testing Days
Climate Impact of Software Testing at Nordic Testing Days
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAU
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAU
みなさんこんにちはこれ何文字まで入るの？40文字以下不可とか本当に意味わからないけどこれ限界文字数書いてないからマジでやばい文字数いけるんじゃないの？えこ...
みなさんこんにちはこれ何文字まで入るの？40文字以下不可とか本当に意味わからないけどこれ限界文字数書いてないからマジでやばい文字数いけるんじゃないの？えこ...
GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...
GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...
GraphSummit Singapore | Graphing Success: Revolutionising Organisational Stru...
GraphSummit Singapore | Graphing Success: Revolutionising Organisational Stru...
Infrastructure Challenges in Scaling RAG with Custom AI models
Infrastructure Challenges in Scaling RAG with Custom AI models
Chapter 5 Immunology
- 1. Chapter 5 Antigen Recognition by T Lymphocytes
- 4. Fab Domain structure of TCR is similar to Ig
- 25. Ag presented by MHC No MHC
- 29. Antigen processing and presentation
- 30. B cells can recognize a wide range of molecules in their native form.
- 37. T-cells function by making contact with other cells
- 42. MHC class I binds CD8 and MHC class II binds CD4
- 50. The processing pathway determines which class of MHC molecule interacts with a peptide that originates from extracellular or intracellular pathogen. Intracellular pathogen Extracellular pathogen
- 51. The processing pathway determines which class of MHC molecule interacts with a peptide that originates from extracellular or intracellular pathogen. Intracellular pathogen Extracellular pathogen
- 58. Chaperone proteins aid the assembly and peptide loading of MHC class I molecules in the endoplasmic reticulum Golgi stacks cell membrane
- 63. The pathways of the MHC class I and II
- 67. The invariant chain prevents peptides from binding to a MHC class II molecule UNTIL…it reaches the site of extracellular protein breakdown
- 78. The major histocompatibility complex