f = nv/2L
So the frequency depends on:
- n, the harmonic number
- v, the wave speed
- L, the string length
You could change the pitch by:
- Changing the tension on the string (affects v)
- Trimming the string length L
- Playing a harmonic (higher n)
So different instruments with the same note have the same frequency but different timbres due to differences in their resonating structures exciting different harmonics.
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is a scalar quantity that depends on both the magnitude of the applied force and the area over which that force is distributed. Liquids and gases exert pressure equally in all directions, with pressure increasing at greater depths or elevations due to increased force from the weight of the material above. High pressure can damage structures with small contact areas, while low pressure at high altitudes requires pressurized vessels to prevent health issues in humans.
Sound is a form of energy that produces hearing in our ears. It is produced by vibration and travels as a longitudinal wave through compression and rarefaction regions in a medium. The Bell jar experiment showed that sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound waves are characterized by their amplitude, wavelength, frequency and speed. Pitch is determined by frequency of vibration and loudness by amplitude.
Ch.12.less.2.what are the properties of sound [autosaved] [recovered]bassantnour
This document discusses key properties of sound including:
1) Sound is a type of energy that moves through matter as vibrations called sound waves. Sound waves can be longitudinal or transverse.
2) Sound travels through solids, liquids, and gases at different speeds depending on how closely packed the particles are. It travels fastest through solids and slowest through gases.
3) Absorption occurs when sound waves hit a material and their energy is transferred to thermal energy, helping to cover rooms with absorbing materials.
This document summarizes key concepts about waves, including:
1. There are two types of waves - transverse waves where displacement is perpendicular to direction of travel, and longitudinal waves where displacement is parallel.
2. Wave properties include amplitude, wavelength, period, frequency, and speed. The frequency is the number of waves passing per second, while speed is the distance traveled per second.
3. Sound waves are longitudinal waves that travel via vibrations in air or other materials. Electromagnetic waves like light can travel through empty space.
4. Wave phenomena include reflection at boundaries, refraction when speed changes, interference from adding or subtracting waves, and diffraction spreading waves passing through openings.
This document provides an overview of key concepts about waves including:
- The definition of a wave as a vibration or disturbance that transfers energy
- Key wave properties like period, frequency, amplitude, wavelength
- The difference between transverse and longitudinal waves
- How speed, frequency, and wavelength are related
- Examples of waves including sound waves and light waves
This document defines sound intensity and decibels. It explains that intensity is the rate of energy transfer per unit area, measured in watts per square meter. The range of human hearing spans from 1x10^-12 W/m2 to 1 W/m2. However, decibels provide a more efficient scale since they are logarithmic units that allow comparison to a reference intensity. The document provides formulas to convert between intensity (I) and decibel (dB) measurements.
This document provides an overview of waves, including different types of waves and their characteristics. It begins by introducing waves using examples of slinky toys and rope waves. It defines a wave as a disturbance that transfers energy through a medium. The document then covers two types of waves based on direction of movement: transverse waves where particles move perpendicular to wave movement, and longitudinal waves where particle movement is parallel. It also distinguishes mechanical waves that need matter to transmit energy from electromagnetic waves that can transmit through a vacuum. Key wave characteristics like amplitude, frequency, wavelength are explained. Sound waves and light waves are discussed in more detail, noting they are longitudinal and transverse waves respectively.
Waves can interact in several ways as they travel through different mediums. When a wave hits a surface, it can reflect off at the same angle (law of reflection). As waves pass from one medium to another with different densities, they refract or bend due to changes in speed. Diffraction causes waves to spread out and change direction as they pass obstacles or openings. Interference occurs when two waves overlap and their amplitudes combine constructively or destructively. Resonance is a state where the frequency of a forced vibration matches an object's natural frequency, causing large amplified oscillations.
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is a scalar quantity that depends on both the magnitude of the applied force and the area over which that force is distributed. Liquids and gases exert pressure equally in all directions, with pressure increasing at greater depths or elevations due to increased force from the weight of the material above. High pressure can damage structures with small contact areas, while low pressure at high altitudes requires pressurized vessels to prevent health issues in humans.
Sound is a form of energy that produces hearing in our ears. It is produced by vibration and travels as a longitudinal wave through compression and rarefaction regions in a medium. The Bell jar experiment showed that sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound waves are characterized by their amplitude, wavelength, frequency and speed. Pitch is determined by frequency of vibration and loudness by amplitude.
Ch.12.less.2.what are the properties of sound [autosaved] [recovered]bassantnour
This document discusses key properties of sound including:
1) Sound is a type of energy that moves through matter as vibrations called sound waves. Sound waves can be longitudinal or transverse.
2) Sound travels through solids, liquids, and gases at different speeds depending on how closely packed the particles are. It travels fastest through solids and slowest through gases.
3) Absorption occurs when sound waves hit a material and their energy is transferred to thermal energy, helping to cover rooms with absorbing materials.
This document summarizes key concepts about waves, including:
1. There are two types of waves - transverse waves where displacement is perpendicular to direction of travel, and longitudinal waves where displacement is parallel.
2. Wave properties include amplitude, wavelength, period, frequency, and speed. The frequency is the number of waves passing per second, while speed is the distance traveled per second.
3. Sound waves are longitudinal waves that travel via vibrations in air or other materials. Electromagnetic waves like light can travel through empty space.
4. Wave phenomena include reflection at boundaries, refraction when speed changes, interference from adding or subtracting waves, and diffraction spreading waves passing through openings.
This document provides an overview of key concepts about waves including:
- The definition of a wave as a vibration or disturbance that transfers energy
- Key wave properties like period, frequency, amplitude, wavelength
- The difference between transverse and longitudinal waves
- How speed, frequency, and wavelength are related
- Examples of waves including sound waves and light waves
This document defines sound intensity and decibels. It explains that intensity is the rate of energy transfer per unit area, measured in watts per square meter. The range of human hearing spans from 1x10^-12 W/m2 to 1 W/m2. However, decibels provide a more efficient scale since they are logarithmic units that allow comparison to a reference intensity. The document provides formulas to convert between intensity (I) and decibel (dB) measurements.
This document provides an overview of waves, including different types of waves and their characteristics. It begins by introducing waves using examples of slinky toys and rope waves. It defines a wave as a disturbance that transfers energy through a medium. The document then covers two types of waves based on direction of movement: transverse waves where particles move perpendicular to wave movement, and longitudinal waves where particle movement is parallel. It also distinguishes mechanical waves that need matter to transmit energy from electromagnetic waves that can transmit through a vacuum. Key wave characteristics like amplitude, frequency, wavelength are explained. Sound waves and light waves are discussed in more detail, noting they are longitudinal and transverse waves respectively.
Waves can interact in several ways as they travel through different mediums. When a wave hits a surface, it can reflect off at the same angle (law of reflection). As waves pass from one medium to another with different densities, they refract or bend due to changes in speed. Diffraction causes waves to spread out and change direction as they pass obstacles or openings. Interference occurs when two waves overlap and their amplitudes combine constructively or destructively. Resonance is a state where the frequency of a forced vibration matches an object's natural frequency, causing large amplified oscillations.
Sound intensity is defined as the power of a sound source divided by the surface area over which the sound is spread. The formula for sound intensity is sound power divided by area. If sound spreads equally in all directions from a source, the intensity equals the power divided by the surface area of a sphere. Sound level is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of a measured sound intensity to a reference threshold intensity. The formula for sound level is 10 times the logarithm of the measured intensity divided by the threshold intensity.
The document discusses the Doppler effect, which is defined as the change in frequency or pitch of a wave when the source of the wave and the observer are in relative motion. It explains that when the source approaches the observer, the observed frequency increases, and when the source moves away, the frequency decreases. An equation is provided to calculate the observed frequency based on the source frequency, speed of sound, and speeds of the source and observer. Examples are given of how the Doppler effect causes changes in the sound of a siren as a police car approaches or recedes from an observer. The summary concludes by noting that the Doppler effect is used in radar to measure the speeds of detected objects.
Spherical waves oscillate in space and time with amplitudes that remain constant over any spherical surface centered on the source. The wave function of a spherical wave can be written as S(r, t) = sm (r)cos (kr - ωt + φ). Locations where two waves are perfectly in phase occur when the path difference is an integer multiple of the wavelength. Locations where two waves are perfectly out of phase occur when one path is an integer multiple of wavelengths and the other is a half integer multiple. When the frequency difference between two sound waves is small, a beat is heard; when the difference is large, two distinct tones are heard.
The document discusses sound power, intensity, and how intensity decreases with distance from the sound source. It defines power as the energy emitted by sound waves over time and intensity as the amount of energy carried by sound waves through a given area. Intensity is commonly referred to as loudness. While the energy of a sound wave remains constant with distance, the area it covers increases with distance from the source, causing intensity to decrease with the inverse square of the distance. Therefore, if the distance doubles, the intensity decreases by a factor of 4 and the amplitude halves.
This document provides an overview of sound and hearing, including:
1. It describes how the human ear works, from collecting sound waves through the outer ear and transmitting vibrations through the ossicles to the cochlea where hair cells detect different frequencies.
2. It discusses properties of sound like loudness, pitch, and timbre, and how they are perceived. Loudness depends on amplitude, pitch on frequency, and timbre on waveform complexity.
3. It explains characteristics of sound waves like wavelength, frequency, speed of sound, and the decibel scale used to measure sound intensity and pressure levels.
Hue refers to the dominant wavelength of light, which determines the color as perceived by the observer. Saturation refers to the purity of the hue, or the amount of white light mixed with it. Luminance refers to the brightness or intensity of the color.
The document discusses radiometry and photometry, which deal with measuring light across the electromagnetic spectrum and in the visible spectrum respectively. It defines terms like luminous flux, luminous intensity, illuminance, and luminance.
It also covers topics like additive and subtractive color mixing, primary and secondary colors, color spaces, and video signal formats like RGB, YUV, and YCbCr which are used to represent color images and video. Human cone sensitivity
The document discusses the Doppler effect, which is when the observed frequency of a wave (such as sound) is different than the emitted frequency, due to relative motion between the source and observer. It causes changes in pitch for sound waves, and is used in radar guns and police radar. It also discusses shock waves, sonic booms, and how the Doppler effect applies to light waves and allows scientists to measure star rotation speeds and galaxy distances.
This document provides information about sound waves and how they propagate. It discusses longitudinal waves, pressure variations in sound waves, factors that determine the speed of sound in different mediums, wavefronts, frequency and pitch, how the human ear detects sound, and the range of human hearing. Examples of different speeds of sound in various materials like air, water, steel and glass are given.
Light enters a diamond and undergoes total internal reflection within the diamond due to the high refractive index of diamond. This causes the light to exit the diamond at different angles, producing the sparkling effect. The facets on cut diamonds are designed to maximize the internal reflections and sparkling. Diamonds appear white due to dispersion of light into the visible spectrum by the crystal structure of diamond.
The document discusses the Doppler effect, which is the change in frequency of waves due to relative motion between the source and receiver. It provides the Doppler equation and explains how the signs change depending on if the source and receiver are moving towards or away from each other. It then gives an example problem involving a bat using echolocation to detect prey. The bat emits a whistle and detects the echo off the prey. The problem is worked through step-by-step to calculate the frequency changes based on whether the bat and prey are moving towards or away from each other.
The Doppler effect describes how the frequency of a wave (such as sound) is perceived by an observer who is moving relative to the source of the wave. When an ambulance approaches with its siren on, the observer hears a higher pitch tone due to compression of the sound waves. As the ambulance passes and moves away, the observer hears a lower pitch tone due to expansion of the sound waves. The Doppler effect can be calculated using an equation that takes into account the velocity of sound, velocity of the source, and velocity of the receiver.
The Doppler effect refers to the change in frequency of a wave as the source and observer move relative to each other. The document discusses the history of the Doppler effect and its discovery by Doppler in 1842. It defines key terms like frequency and wavelength and presents the Doppler effect equation. Examples are given of how the equation applies to moving sources and observers. Real-life applications like monitoring blood flow and fetal heartbeats using Doppler are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of Doppler ultrasound, including:
- The physics of the Doppler effect as it relates to ultrasound imaging. Changes in frequency due to relative motion between a sound source and receiver.
- Two main types of Doppler imaging - pulsed wave Doppler which allows measurement of velocity and depth, and continuous wave Doppler which is better for measuring fast flow.
- Additional Doppler modes like color Doppler, power Doppler, and spectral Doppler which display Doppler information in different ways.
- Applications of Doppler ultrasound include evaluating blood flow, detecting fetal heartbeats, and more.
The document discusses the Doppler effect, which describes how the observed frequency of a wave (such as sound) is different when the source of the wave and the observer are in relative motion. Specifically:
- It is named after Christian Doppler, who first described the phenomenon in the 19th century.
- The frequency observed is higher if the source and observer are moving towards each other, and lower if they are moving away from each other.
- An equation is provided to calculate the observed frequency based on the source frequency, the speed of the source and observer, and the speed of sound.
- An example problem demonstrates using the equation to calculate the source frequency of a train whistle based on the observed frequency
The Doppler Effect describes how the frequency of waves is altered by the motion of the source or observer. It was first explained in 1842 by Christian Doppler. When the source and observer are moving towards each other, the perceived frequency is higher than the actual frequency. When they are moving away from each other, the perceived frequency is lower. This shift in frequency due to motion is known as the Doppler Effect and applies to sound waves, light waves, and other wave phenomena.
Pitch is determined by frequency, with higher pitches corresponding to higher frequencies. Humans can hear sounds between 20-20,000 Hz. Natural frequency is the rate at which an object vibrates naturally, and resonance occurs when a sound wave matches this natural vibration. Timbre, or sound quality, is affected by the combination of frequencies present and how the sound begins and ends.
Evelyn Glennie is a world renowned classical percussionist who has achieved success despite being deaf. She gradually lost her hearing from a young age but was encouraged to pursue music by her percussion teacher, Ron Forbes. He trained her to feel the music through her body rather than hear it. She attended the Royal Academy of Music in London where she achieved many awards. Glennie is now considered the top multi-percussionist globally and has inspired many through her determination to succeed despite her deafness.
This document provides instructions for navigating a presentation on sound waves and acoustics. It begins with directions for viewing the presentation as a slideshow and advancing through slides. It then lists the main topics that will be covered in each section, including sound waves, intensity, resonance, harmonics, and the Doppler effect. Sample problems and multiple choice questions are also included at the end to aid learning.
Sound intensity is defined as the power of a sound source divided by the surface area over which the sound is spread. The formula for sound intensity is sound power divided by area. If sound spreads equally in all directions from a source, the intensity equals the power divided by the surface area of a sphere. Sound level is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of a measured sound intensity to a reference threshold intensity. The formula for sound level is 10 times the logarithm of the measured intensity divided by the threshold intensity.
The document discusses the Doppler effect, which is defined as the change in frequency or pitch of a wave when the source of the wave and the observer are in relative motion. It explains that when the source approaches the observer, the observed frequency increases, and when the source moves away, the frequency decreases. An equation is provided to calculate the observed frequency based on the source frequency, speed of sound, and speeds of the source and observer. Examples are given of how the Doppler effect causes changes in the sound of a siren as a police car approaches or recedes from an observer. The summary concludes by noting that the Doppler effect is used in radar to measure the speeds of detected objects.
Spherical waves oscillate in space and time with amplitudes that remain constant over any spherical surface centered on the source. The wave function of a spherical wave can be written as S(r, t) = sm (r)cos (kr - ωt + φ). Locations where two waves are perfectly in phase occur when the path difference is an integer multiple of the wavelength. Locations where two waves are perfectly out of phase occur when one path is an integer multiple of wavelengths and the other is a half integer multiple. When the frequency difference between two sound waves is small, a beat is heard; when the difference is large, two distinct tones are heard.
The document discusses sound power, intensity, and how intensity decreases with distance from the sound source. It defines power as the energy emitted by sound waves over time and intensity as the amount of energy carried by sound waves through a given area. Intensity is commonly referred to as loudness. While the energy of a sound wave remains constant with distance, the area it covers increases with distance from the source, causing intensity to decrease with the inverse square of the distance. Therefore, if the distance doubles, the intensity decreases by a factor of 4 and the amplitude halves.
This document provides an overview of sound and hearing, including:
1. It describes how the human ear works, from collecting sound waves through the outer ear and transmitting vibrations through the ossicles to the cochlea where hair cells detect different frequencies.
2. It discusses properties of sound like loudness, pitch, and timbre, and how they are perceived. Loudness depends on amplitude, pitch on frequency, and timbre on waveform complexity.
3. It explains characteristics of sound waves like wavelength, frequency, speed of sound, and the decibel scale used to measure sound intensity and pressure levels.
Hue refers to the dominant wavelength of light, which determines the color as perceived by the observer. Saturation refers to the purity of the hue, or the amount of white light mixed with it. Luminance refers to the brightness or intensity of the color.
The document discusses radiometry and photometry, which deal with measuring light across the electromagnetic spectrum and in the visible spectrum respectively. It defines terms like luminous flux, luminous intensity, illuminance, and luminance.
It also covers topics like additive and subtractive color mixing, primary and secondary colors, color spaces, and video signal formats like RGB, YUV, and YCbCr which are used to represent color images and video. Human cone sensitivity
The document discusses the Doppler effect, which is when the observed frequency of a wave (such as sound) is different than the emitted frequency, due to relative motion between the source and observer. It causes changes in pitch for sound waves, and is used in radar guns and police radar. It also discusses shock waves, sonic booms, and how the Doppler effect applies to light waves and allows scientists to measure star rotation speeds and galaxy distances.
This document provides information about sound waves and how they propagate. It discusses longitudinal waves, pressure variations in sound waves, factors that determine the speed of sound in different mediums, wavefronts, frequency and pitch, how the human ear detects sound, and the range of human hearing. Examples of different speeds of sound in various materials like air, water, steel and glass are given.
Light enters a diamond and undergoes total internal reflection within the diamond due to the high refractive index of diamond. This causes the light to exit the diamond at different angles, producing the sparkling effect. The facets on cut diamonds are designed to maximize the internal reflections and sparkling. Diamonds appear white due to dispersion of light into the visible spectrum by the crystal structure of diamond.
The document discusses the Doppler effect, which is the change in frequency of waves due to relative motion between the source and receiver. It provides the Doppler equation and explains how the signs change depending on if the source and receiver are moving towards or away from each other. It then gives an example problem involving a bat using echolocation to detect prey. The bat emits a whistle and detects the echo off the prey. The problem is worked through step-by-step to calculate the frequency changes based on whether the bat and prey are moving towards or away from each other.
The Doppler effect describes how the frequency of a wave (such as sound) is perceived by an observer who is moving relative to the source of the wave. When an ambulance approaches with its siren on, the observer hears a higher pitch tone due to compression of the sound waves. As the ambulance passes and moves away, the observer hears a lower pitch tone due to expansion of the sound waves. The Doppler effect can be calculated using an equation that takes into account the velocity of sound, velocity of the source, and velocity of the receiver.
The Doppler effect refers to the change in frequency of a wave as the source and observer move relative to each other. The document discusses the history of the Doppler effect and its discovery by Doppler in 1842. It defines key terms like frequency and wavelength and presents the Doppler effect equation. Examples are given of how the equation applies to moving sources and observers. Real-life applications like monitoring blood flow and fetal heartbeats using Doppler are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of Doppler ultrasound, including:
- The physics of the Doppler effect as it relates to ultrasound imaging. Changes in frequency due to relative motion between a sound source and receiver.
- Two main types of Doppler imaging - pulsed wave Doppler which allows measurement of velocity and depth, and continuous wave Doppler which is better for measuring fast flow.
- Additional Doppler modes like color Doppler, power Doppler, and spectral Doppler which display Doppler information in different ways.
- Applications of Doppler ultrasound include evaluating blood flow, detecting fetal heartbeats, and more.
The document discusses the Doppler effect, which describes how the observed frequency of a wave (such as sound) is different when the source of the wave and the observer are in relative motion. Specifically:
- It is named after Christian Doppler, who first described the phenomenon in the 19th century.
- The frequency observed is higher if the source and observer are moving towards each other, and lower if they are moving away from each other.
- An equation is provided to calculate the observed frequency based on the source frequency, the speed of the source and observer, and the speed of sound.
- An example problem demonstrates using the equation to calculate the source frequency of a train whistle based on the observed frequency
The Doppler Effect describes how the frequency of waves is altered by the motion of the source or observer. It was first explained in 1842 by Christian Doppler. When the source and observer are moving towards each other, the perceived frequency is higher than the actual frequency. When they are moving away from each other, the perceived frequency is lower. This shift in frequency due to motion is known as the Doppler Effect and applies to sound waves, light waves, and other wave phenomena.
Pitch is determined by frequency, with higher pitches corresponding to higher frequencies. Humans can hear sounds between 20-20,000 Hz. Natural frequency is the rate at which an object vibrates naturally, and resonance occurs when a sound wave matches this natural vibration. Timbre, or sound quality, is affected by the combination of frequencies present and how the sound begins and ends.
Evelyn Glennie is a world renowned classical percussionist who has achieved success despite being deaf. She gradually lost her hearing from a young age but was encouraged to pursue music by her percussion teacher, Ron Forbes. He trained her to feel the music through her body rather than hear it. She attended the Royal Academy of Music in London where she achieved many awards. Glennie is now considered the top multi-percussionist globally and has inspired many through her determination to succeed despite her deafness.
This document provides instructions for navigating a presentation on sound waves and acoustics. It begins with directions for viewing the presentation as a slideshow and advancing through slides. It then lists the main topics that will be covered in each section, including sound waves, intensity, resonance, harmonics, and the Doppler effect. Sample problems and multiple choice questions are also included at the end to aid learning.
This document discusses fears around immigration in the United States. It notes that while some Americans fear that immigrants take jobs and lower wages, the jobs immigrants do take may otherwise go unfilled. Illegal immigrants contribute to the economy through taxes, but some do utilize welfare programs. The document also addresses stereotypes against certain groups like Muslims, and how illegality forces immigrants to accept very low wages. It concludes by acknowledging tensions but also progress in Americans' increasing tolerance of diversity.
The AMAZING Success of Indian Immigrants in America!Richard Herman
This is the powerpoint presentation that I am delivering today, 9/13, as part of the Onam Ponnonam celebration hosted by the Kerala Association of Ohio.
The discussion focuses on the amazing contributions of immigrants to America, with a special emphasis on immigrants from India.
The data demonstrates that immigration is America's secret weapon in the hyper-competitive global economy, and that the long-standing immigration reform debate is improperly framed and ultimately undermines the nation's economic and national security.
Immigrants from all countries contribute mightily to the country's economic development, job creation and innovation.
Immigrants from India stand-out from the pack.
I was quoted in this recent article from International Business Times (referring to a quote in Forbes):
”It’s not a surprise that we’re seeing Indians rise in corporate ranks,” said Richard Herman, co-author of a book entitled "U.S., Immigrant Inc.," to Forbes. "Of all the immigrant groups coming in today, Indians are head-and-shoulders above others, and this is partly because of their English-language skills and also the advanced education that many of them are bringing to the U.S.”
http://www.ibtimes.com/rise-indian-americans-u-s-business-infographic-1560450
America needs to understand the job-creation benefits of welcoming immigrants, integrating the foreign-born, and passing comprehensive immigration reform.
Delay on this front is jeopardizing America's future.
The document provides instructions for a research project on immigration during the Gilded Age in the United States from 1869-1896. Students are asked to research the lives of new immigrants from places like China, Ireland, and Italy, and take a stance on whether immigration had a positive or negative influence on the growing country. They are to present their findings in a PowerPoint presentation with a chart comparing the positive and negative influences. Sources for research are provided.
Powerpoint notes over Chapter 4 of National Geographic's World cultures test. Covers North America current events, including globalization and immigration issues.
This document provides an overview of momentum and collisions from a physics textbook. It discusses key topics like:
1) Momentum is proportional to mass and velocity, and momentum is conserved during collisions.
2) Impulse equals change in momentum, and greater changes in momentum require more force or time. Features like airbags and crumple zones in cars are designed to reduce force during collisions by increasing time over which force is applied.
3) Collisions can be perfectly elastic, perfectly inelastic, or inelastic. In perfectly inelastic collisions, objects stick together after collision and momentum is analyzed for the combined final mass.
This project involves managing an Iranian family's plan to study abroad in India. It will require obtaining admissions and accommodation for all family members, as well as arranging travel, visas, and settlement issues. A project manager will oversee the process and coordinate with stakeholders like the family members and participating institutions. Communication will occur via Skype and standard project documentation like status reports will be used to monitor progress.
This document summarizes key concepts about two-dimensional motion and vectors:
1) It introduces scalars, which have magnitude but no direction, and vectors, which have both magnitude and direction.
2) It describes methods for adding vectors graphically by drawing them as arrows and finding the resultant, or using trigonometry.
3) It explains projectile motion as objects moving under gravity with both horizontal and vertical components of motion that can be analyzed separately using kinematic equations.
Webinar - Immigration Legislation in 2011 and 2012mbashyam
This powerpoint reviews significant immigration legislation introduced by Congress in 2011, and immigration attorneys at Bashyam Spiro provide their thoughts on what lies ahead for immigration legislation in 2012.
The document summarizes Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It describes Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle where he observed patterns of diversity among species in places like the Galapagos Islands. This led him to propose that life evolves over time through natural selection, where traits beneficial for survival are passed on while others die out. The document also outlines evidence that shaped Darwin's thinking, such as fossils, biogeography, and homologous and vestigial structures between organisms.
This document provides a summary of key concepts from a physics textbook chapter on one-dimensional motion, including:
1. Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are defined and equations for calculating average velocity, displacement, and final velocity given initial velocity, acceleration, and time are presented.
2. Free fall under the influence of gravity is discussed and equations for calculating time and final velocity of falling objects are given.
3. Graphs of position, velocity, and acceleration over time are used to describe and analyze examples of one-dimensional motion including constant velocity, acceleration, deceleration, and free fall.
The document summarizes key concepts about circular motion, Newton's law of universal gravitation, motion in space, and weightlessness. It discusses centripetal acceleration and force, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and how apparent weightlessness occurs in falling elevators and orbiting spacecraft due to inertia rather than a lack of gravitational force. Examples and equations are provided to calculate values like tangential speed, centripetal force, gravitational force, and planetary orbital properties.
The document discusses various topics relating to air temperature, including:
1) How daily, monthly, and annual mean temperatures are calculated from temperature data readings.
2) The main controls that cause temperatures to vary, such as differential heating of land and water, ocean currents, altitude, geographic position, and cloud cover/albedo.
3) Additional factors like land/water differences, ocean currents, altitude, windward/leeward coasts, and the global distribution of temperatures.
4) Cycles of air temperatures including daily and annual variations.
5) Instruments used to measure temperature and their shelters.
6) Common temperature scales and their reference points.
7) Indices used to
This document summarizes key concepts about populations including:
1) Three important characteristics of populations are geographic distribution, density, and growth rate. Population density refers to the number of individuals per unit area.
2) Population growth is determined by births, deaths, and migration in and out of an area. It can be positive or negative.
3) Exponential growth occurs when a population reproduces at a constant rate, initially slowly and then more rapidly. Logistic growth follows an S-curve as the population levels off due to limits on resources.
4) Limits to population growth include limiting factors like competition, predation, disease, and climate/human impacts. Density dependent factors depend on population size
This document provides an overview of circular motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It defines key concepts like centripetal acceleration, tangential speed, and centripetal force. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to calculate tangential speed from centripetal acceleration and radius. Newton's law of gravitation defines the gravitational force between objects in terms of their masses and the distance between their centers. Kepler's laws of planetary motion are introduced along with concepts like orbital periods and apparent weightlessness in orbiting spacecraft.
The document discusses forces and Newton's laws of motion. It begins by defining a force as a push or pull that can change an object's motion. Forces are measured in newtons and can be contact forces or field forces. Newton's first law states that objects in motion stay in motion and objects at rest stay at rest unless acted upon by a net force. Newton's second law relates force, mass, and acceleration. Newton's third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Friction and gravity are everyday forces that can affect motion.
The document discusses work, energy, and the conservation of mechanical energy. It defines work as the product of force and displacement, and introduces kinetic energy as the energy of motion and potential energy as stored energy due to position or force interactions. The document also explains that the total mechanical energy, which is the sum of an object's kinetic and potential energies, remains constant in an isolated system according to the law of conservation of energy.
The document discusses the classification of organisms into a hierarchical system and the evolution of classification over time. It describes Linnaeus' original system that grouped organisms into seven levels from kingdom to species based on physical similarities. Modern evolutionary classification groups organisms based on evolutionary relationships and common ancestry as shown in cladograms. The three domain system divides all life into Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya with Eukarya further divided into kingdoms of Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
This document discusses work, energy, and the conservation of mechanical energy. It defines work as the product of force and displacement, with units of joules. Kinetic energy depends on an object's mass and speed, and potential energy includes gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanical energy of an isolated system remains constant over time. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculations of work, kinetic energy, potential energy, and applying the conservation of mechanical energy to solve for unknown values.
Sound is a mechanical wave that travels through a medium such as air, water or steel. It is caused by vibrations which create alternating high and low pressure regions. The pitch we hear is determined by the frequency of vibrations, with higher frequencies corresponding to higher pitches. Sound can travel through solids, liquids and gases, with speed dependent on the properties of the medium. Intensity or loudness is measured in decibels and perceived as changes in air pressure.
Sound waves are compressional waves that travel through air, creating areas of higher and lower density called compressions and rarefactions. The frequency of a sound wave is the number of compressions and rarefactions that pass by per second, while the wavelength is the distance between compressions or rarefactions. Sound travels fastest in solids and slowest in gases. Louder sounds have greater amplitude and carry more energy than softer sounds with smaller amplitude.
This document provides information about waves and different types of waves including sound waves and light waves. It defines key terms related to waves such as amplitude, frequency, wavelength, and speed. It explains that sound and light are both transmitted as waves and discusses how their properties including pitch, loudness, speed, and type of medium affect their transmission. The document also covers the electromagnetic spectrum and different types of electromagnetic waves including visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. It discusses how light interacts with materials through reflection, refraction, and absorption and explains vision and color.
This document discusses fundamentals of acoustics, including:
- Sound consists of air molecule vibrations that propagate in longitudinal waves.
- Pitch is perceived as frequency and is measured in Hertz. The human range is 20Hz to 20kHz.
- Loudness relates to amplitude, power, and intensity of sound waves. It is measured in decibels on a logarithmic scale.
- Timbre is the quality that distinguishes different musical instrument sounds and is determined by the relative strengths of harmonic overtones above the fundamental pitch frequency.
This document discusses the basics of sound waves. It explains that sound waves are caused by vibrations, requiring a medium like air, liquid or solid to transfer energy. It describes how compression and rarefaction of molecules transfers sound waves. Frequency determines pitch, with higher frequencies being higher pitched. Amplitude determines loudness, with greater amplitude being louder. Graphs can show the displacement over time of sound waves to represent characteristics like frequency and amplitude. The speed of sound depends on the medium and temperature.
This document provides an overview of key concepts about waves including:
- The definition of a wave as a vibration or disturbance that transfers energy
- Key wave properties like period, frequency, amplitude, wavelength
- The difference between transverse and longitudinal waves
- How speed, frequency, and wavelength are related
- Examples of waves including sound waves and light waves
Sound is a form of energy that travels in longitudinal waves, requiring matter to transmit vibrations between particles. The speed of sound varies according to the medium, being fastest in solids and slowest in gases. Our ears can detect frequencies between 20-20,000 Hz, perceiving variations in pitch from low to high frequencies and loudness from soft to loud amplitudes. Musical instruments produce sound through vibration of different materials, while other technologies like sonar use sound waves for applications such as locating objects underwater.
Sound is a form of energy that travels in longitudinal waves, requiring matter to transmit vibrations between particles. The speed of sound varies according to the medium, being fastest in solids and slowest in gases. Our ears can detect frequencies between 20-20,000 Hz, perceiving variations in pitch from low to high frequencies and loudness from soft to loud amplitudes. Musical instruments produce sound through vibration of different materials, while other technologies like sonar use sound waves for applications such as locating objects underwater.
Sound is produced by vibration and needs a medium to travel through. It propagates as longitudinal waves of alternating compressions and rarefactions. The human range of hearing is between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Ultrasound above this range has many applications like cleaning, object detection and medical imaging. Sonar uses ultrasound to detect underwater objects by calculating the time taken for echo reception. The human ear collects sound via the outer ear and transmits it through the middle ear bones to the inner ear where it is converted to electrical signals for the brain to interpret as sound.
Sound is produced by vibration and needs a medium to travel through. It propagates as longitudinal waves of alternating compressions and rarefactions. The human range of hearing is between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Ultrasound above this range has many applications like cleaning, object detection and medical imaging. Sonar uses ultrasound to detect underwater objects by calculating the time taken for echoes to return. The human ear collects sound via the outer ear and transmits it through the middle ear bones to the inner ear where it is converted to electrical signals for the brain to interpret as sound.
Sound is a mechanical wave that travels through a medium such as air, water or solid materials. It is produced by vibrating objects and propagates by compressing and decompressing particles in the medium. The characteristics of sound waves can be described using concepts such as wavelength, frequency, amplitude, pitch and intensity. Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive compressions, frequency is the number of waves passing a point per second, and amplitude relates to loudness. Sound travels faster in denser media like solids than in liquids or gases.
Sound is caused by rapid changes in air pressure that travel as sound waves. The human ear can detect sounds between 20-20,000 Hz. Higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches while louder sounds have greater pressure amplitudes. Sound travels through air, water and solids by vibrating molecules that transfer energy through the medium. The speed of sound depends on the material it passes through and is fastest in solids.
1. Sound is a longitudinal mechanical wave that propagates through a medium such as air or water by compressions and rarefactions which create regions of high and low pressure.
2. The document discusses several properties of sound waves including that frequency determines pitch, amplitude determines loudness, and speed depends on the properties of the medium.
3. Wave interference and phenomena like resonance, standing waves, and the Doppler effect are also covered as they relate to the nature and perception of sound waves.
- A wave is a repeating disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space by causing particles to vibrate and bump into nearby particles, transferring the energy (first 3 sentences).
- Sound is a form of energy caused by vibrations that transfers through longitudinal waves, affecting particle pressure. It can be reflected, refracted, absorbed, and exhibits interference and diffraction (next 3 sentences).
- The speed of sound depends on the medium and temperature, and the Doppler effect occurs when the frequency changes due to a moving source (last 2 sentences).
Sound waves are caused by vibrations that create regions of high and low pressure in air molecules. Longitudinal waves propagate through fluids by relying on pressure forces between molecules. The speed of sound depends on the elasticity of the medium - more elastic media allow sound to travel faster. Pitch is perceived as the frequency of a sound wave, while loudness depends on the amplitude. Timbre, which allows distinction between sounds of the same pitch and loudness, is influenced most by the harmonic content or overtones present in the sound waveform.
Sound waves are mechanical compression waves that cause alternating high and low pressure regions in air or other materials. The speed of sound depends on the density and compressibility of the medium and follows the formula velocity=sqrt(elasticity/inertia). Humans can hear sounds between 20-20,000 Hz but some animals can hear infra or ultrasound beyond this range. Sound is measured on the decibel scale which is logarithmic to account for the wide range of sound amplitudes.
This document defines sound and discusses several key aspects of sound waves:
- Sound is a mechanical wave that is created by vibrating objects and propagates through a medium. Whether a human is present to hear it or not, sound exists as a physical disturbance in the medium.
- Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can be characterized by their frequency (pitch) and intensity (loudness). Higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches, while greater intensities are perceived as louder volumes.
- The human range of hearing is typically 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Ultrasound and infrasound refer to frequencies above and below this range. Intensity is measured in decibels, with each doubling of intensity corresponding
Sound is produced due to vibration and needs a medium to travel. It propagates as longitudinal waves of alternating compressions and rarefactions. The characteristics of a sound wave include its frequency, wavelength, amplitude and speed. Sound can be reflected, refracted and undergoes echo and reverberation. Ultrasound has many applications. Sonar uses ultrasound to detect underwater objects. The human ear collects sound waves and converts them into electrical signals through a series of structures to be interpreted by the brain.
The document discusses the production, propagation, and perception of sound. It explains that sound is produced by vibration and travels as a longitudinal wave through a medium by causing regions of high and low pressure called compressions and rarefactions. The human ear collects sound waves through the outer, middle, and inner ear which converts the vibrations into electrical signals for the brain to interpret as sound.
Waves transport energy through a medium rather than matter. There are two main types of waves: transverse waves, where the medium moves perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel, and longitudinal waves, where the medium moves parallel to the direction of travel. Key wave parameters include amplitude, wavelength, frequency, period, and speed. The wavelength is the distance between two equivalent points on consecutive waves, frequency is the number of waves passing a point per second, and speed depends on the properties of the medium and can be calculated as speed equals wavelength times frequency.
This document discusses thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. It describes the different types of thunderstorms like air-mass thunderstorms and severe thunderstorms including supercell thunderstorms. Tornado formation and occurrence are explained detailing how mesocyclones form and funnel clouds develop. Hurricanes are introduced covering their profile, formation from tropical disturbances, and decay when they move over land or cooler waters.
The document describes the global circulation of the atmosphere and factors that influence winds and precipitation patterns worldwide. It discusses various scales of atmospheric motion from microscale to macroscale winds. Key factors like pressure zones, jet streams, ocean currents, monsoons, and phenomena like El Niño and La Niña are examined in relation to how they drive global wind and precipitation patterns.
The document discusses atmospheric stability and its relationship to moisture and weather. It defines stable, unstable, and conditionally unstable atmospheres based on environmental lapse rates. Stability impacts cloud formation and precipitation - unstable air leads to tall clouds and heavy rain while stable air suppresses vertical air movement and yields light precipitation. Daily changes in temperature and moisture content can increase or decrease atmospheric stability.
The document discusses Earth's heat budget and the factors that influence it. It explains that Earth receives energy from the sun and loses energy through radiation and that these energy inputs and outputs must balance annually for Earth's overall heat budget. However, there are imbalances at different latitudes that drive winds and ocean currents to redistribute heat globally. Key concepts covered include the greenhouse effect, mechanisms of heat transfer like conduction and radiation, and how gases in the atmosphere impact heating.
The document discusses the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere. It describes how the atmosphere is divided into vertical layers including the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Temperature decreases with increasing altitude in the troposphere but increases with altitude in the stratosphere and above. The composition of the atmosphere also varies with altitude, transitioning from a homosphere below 80km to a heterosphere of separate gas shells above 80km.
The document discusses air pressure and winds, including how air pressure is measured, how it varies with altitude and due to other factors, the forces that affect wind including pressure gradients, Coriolis force and friction, different wind patterns at various altitudes and at the surface, how winds generate vertical air motion, and how wind is measured. It provides details on these topics over several sections and pages with diagrams.
The document discusses air pressure and winds, including how air pressure is measured, how it varies with altitude and due to other factors, the forces that affect wind including pressure gradients, Coriolis force and friction, different wind patterns at various altitudes and near the surface, how winds generate vertical air motion, and how wind is measured. It provides details on these topics over several sections and pages with diagrams.
Cloud formation occurs through adiabatic cooling or lifting of air parcels to their dew point temperature. Clouds are classified based on their height and form. High clouds like cirrus are made of ice crystals while low clouds like stratus are uniform layers near the surface. Fog forms through different cooling processes like radiation, advection, or evaporation. Precipitation forms through the Bergeron process using ice crystals or collision-coalescence of water droplets. Rain, snow, sleet, hail, and freezing rain are different types of precipitation. Weather modification techniques like cloud seeding are used to artificially influence precipitation and other weather phenomena.
This document provides an overview of two-dimensional motion and vectors. It introduces scalars and vectors, and discusses how to add vectors graphically or using trigonometric functions. Projectile motion is also summarized, noting that the vertical and horizontal components of a projectile's motion are independent, and can be analyzed separately using kinematic equations. Examples are provided for adding vectors, resolving vectors into components, and solving projectile motion problems.
Household circuits are typically wired in parallel. This has several advantages:
- If one outlet or fixture fails, it does not disable the entire circuit. This is safer and more reliable than series wiring.
- The current drawn by each device is the same as the current supplied by the circuit. In parallel wiring, adding or removing a device does not change the current to the other devices on the circuit. In series, the current must pass through each device in order.
- Parallel wiring allows each outlet or fixture to receive the full voltage supplied by the circuit. In series wiring, the voltage would decrease across multiple components.
The main disadvantage of series wiring a household circuit would be that a failure of any one component would
Here are the key points about electric fields based on the document:
- An electric field (E) represents the influence of an electric charge. It has magnitude and direction at each point in space.
- The direction of electric field lines indicates the direction of the electric force on a positive test charge placed at that point.
- The density of electric field lines indicates the strength of the electric field - more closely spaced lines means a stronger field.
- Electric field lines outside a conductor must be perpendicular to the conductor's surface because charges within a conductor redistribute such that the net electric field inside a conductor is always zero due to electrostatic equilibrium.
The two waves would pass through each other and continue traveling in their original directions. At the point where they meet, both waves would be visible as their displacements add together through superposition. If a crest met a trough, they would undergo destructive interference and cancel each other out at the point where they meet.
The document provides information about electrical energy, potential difference, capacitance, current, resistance, and power. It defines key concepts such as volts, capacitance, resistance, Ohm's Law, electric current, direct current, alternating current, and electric power. It also includes examples of calculating charge, energy, current, resistance, and power using given values and equations.
This document discusses two-dimensional motion and vectors. It defines scalars and vectors, and explains how to add vectors graphically and using trigonometric functions. Projectile motion is described as having independent vertical and horizontal components due to gravity. Examples show how to use trigonometric functions to find the magnitude and direction of resulting vectors, resolve vectors into horizontal and vertical components, and solve projectile motion problems by treating vertical and horizontal motions separately.
1. Motion can be described as a change in an object's position over time. Examples include a train moving along tracks or an object falling due to gravity.
2. Displacement describes the direction and size of an object's movement from its starting point. It is a vector quantity while distance traveled is a scalar.
3. Velocity is displacement divided by time and describes both speed and direction of motion. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. During free fall, acceleration due to gravity is constant.
The document discusses motion in one dimension, including displacement, velocity, acceleration, and free fall. It defines key terms like displacement as a change in position, average velocity as displacement over time, and acceleration. Examples show how to calculate displacement, velocity, and acceleration using equations. Free fall acceleration is constant at about 10 m/s^2 downward. Graphs of position, velocity, and acceleration over time are used to represent motion.
The document introduces the animal kingdom by defining animals as heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryotes that are either invertebrates without backbones or vertebrates with backbones. It describes the basic functions of feeding, respiration, circulation, excretion, response, movement, and reproduction. Key trends in animal evolution are also summarized, including cell specialization, bilateral body symmetry, cephalization, and the formation of internal body cavities.
The document discusses different levels of ecological organization from species to biosphere. It describes producers, consumers, trophic levels, food chains and food webs. Energy and matter cycle through ecosystems. The water, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles are important biogeochemical cycles that move elements through living and nonliving parts of the biosphere.
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3. +
+
What do you think?
• What is sound?
• What do all of the sounds that you hear have in
common?
• How do they differ?
• Can sounds travel through solids? Liquids?
Gases?
• Is one type of material better for transmitting sound
waves?
• When race cars or emergency vehicles pass
you, the sound changes. In what way, and
why?
4. +
+
What is Sound?
Sound is a longitudinal wave.
Allsound waves are produced by
vibrating objects.
Tuningforks, guitar strings, vocal cords,
speakers
The vibrating object pushes the air
molecules together, forming a
compression.
Itthen spreads them apart, forming a
rarefaction.
5. +
+
Graphing Sound Waves
The diagram shows compressions (dark) and
rarefactions (white). If you measured the pressure or
density of the air and plotted these against position,
how would the graph appear?
6. +
+
Characteristics of Sound
Frequency is the number of waves per second.
You have heard of ultrasound. What is it?
Frequencies audible to humans are between 20 Hz
and 20 000 Hz.
MiddleC on a piano is 262 Hz.
The emergency broadcast signal is 1,000 Hz.
Infrasound frequencies are lower than 20 Hz.
Ultrasound frequencies are greater than 20,000
Hz.
7. +
+
Pitch
Pitch is the human perception of how high or
low a sound appears to be.
Pitch is primarily determined by frequency.
Pitch also depends slightly on other factors.
Higher frequencies appear to have a higher
pitch when played loudly, even though the
frequency does not change.
8. +
+
Speed of Sound
Sound waves travel through solids, liquids and
gases.
In which would the speed generally be greatest?
Why?
Solids. Because the molecules are more
closely packed, the particles respond more
rapidly to compressions.
How might the temperature of air affect the
speed of sound waves? Why?
Higher temperature increases the speed of the
waves because the particles are moving faster
and colliding more often.
10. +
+
Spherical Waves
Sound propagates in three dimensions.
The diagram shows:
Crests or wave fronts (blue circles)
Wavelength (λ)
Rays (red arrows)
Rays indicate the direction of
propagation.
How would these wave fronts appear
different if they were much farther from
the source?
11. +
+
Spherical Waves
Wave fronts and rays become more nearly
parallel at great distances.
Plane waves are simply very small segments of a
spherical wave a long distance from the source.
12. +
Doppler Effect
An observed change in
frequency when there is
relative motion between the
source waves and the
observer.
In our example, when the
ambulance is moving there is
relative motion between the
ambulance and the two
stationary observers.
13. +
+
Doppler Effect
Why are the waves closer together on the left?
Waves are closer because the vehicle moves to the
left along with the previous wave.
• For observer A
the wavelength is
less, so the
frequency heard
by observer A is
greater than the
source
frequency.
• Continued on the
next slide….
14. +
+
Doppler Effect
• Now for observer B
the wave fronts reach
observer B less often.
So the wavelength is
greater and the
frequency heard by B
is less than the
source frequency.
15. +
+
Doppler Effect
• How would the wave pattern change if the
vehicle moved at a faster speed? How would it
sound different?
– At a higher speed, waves would be even closer
together and the pitch difference would be even
greater.
16. +
+
Now what do you think?
What is sound?
What do all of the sounds that you hear have in
common?
How do they differ?
Cansounds travel through solids? Liquids?
Gases?
Isone type of material better for transmitting sound
waves?
When race cars or emergency vehicles pass
you, the sound changes. In what way, and
why?
18. +
+
What do you think?
• Members of rock bands generally protect their ears
from the loud sounds to prevent damage to their
hearing.
• How do we determine the loudness of a sound?
• What quantity is loudness measuring?
• What units are used?
• Name three ways you can reduce the loudness of the
music heard by a person in the audience.
19. +
+
Sound Intensity
Vibrating objects do work on the air as
they push against the molecules.
Intensity is the rate of energy flow
through an area.
Power (P) is “rate of energy flow” - ΔE/t
Since the waves spread out spherically, you must
calculate the area of a sphere.
A = 4π2r
So, what is the equation for intensity?
20. +
+
Sound Intensity
SI unit: W/m2
This is an inverse square relationship.
Doubling r reduces intensity by ¼.
What happens if r is halved?
Intensity increases by a factor of 4.
21. +
+
Example Problem
What is the intensity of the sound waves
produced by a trumpet at a distance of 3.2 m
when the power output of the trumpet is
0.20W?
P= 0.20W r = 3.2m
00
.2 W
I t ni y=
ne st
π3 m
4 ( .2 )2
Intensity= 1.55 X 10-3 W/m2
22. +
+
Intensity and Decibels
An intensity scale based on human
perception of loudness is often used.
The base unit of this scale is the bel. More
commonly, the decibel (dB) is used.
0.1 bel = 1 dB,1 bel = 10 dB, 5 bels = 50 dB, etc.
The lowest intensity humans hear is assigned a
value of zero.
The scale is logarithmic, so each increase of
1 bel is 10 times louder.
An increase in intensity of 3 bels is 1 000 times
louder.
24. +
+
Audible Sounds
The softest sound humans can hear is
called the threshold of hearing.
Intensity = 1 × 10-12 W/m2 or zero dB
The loudest sound humans can tolerate is
called the threshold of pain.
Intensity = 1.0 W/m2 or 120 dB
Human hearing depends on both the
frequency and the intensity.
26. +
+
Forced Vibrations
Sympathetic vibrations occur when a
vibrating object forces another to vibrate
as well.
A piano string vibrates the sound board.
A guitar string vibrates the bridge.
This makes the sound louder and the
vibrations die out faster.
Energy is transferred from the string to the
sound board or bridge.
27. +
+
Resonance
A phenomenon that occurs when the
frequency of a force applied to a system
matches the natural frequency of vibration
of the system, resulting in a large
amplitude of vibration.
28. +
+
Resonance
Thered rubber band links the 4
pendulums.
Ifa blue pendulum is set in motion,
only the other blue pendulum will
have large-amplitude vibrations.
Theothers will just move a small
amount.
Since the vibrating frequencies of
the blue pendulums match, they are
resonant.
29. +
+
Resonance
Bridges have collapsed as a result of
structural resonance.
Tacoma Narrows in the wind
A freeway overpass during an earthquake
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mclp9QmCGs
30. +
+
Now what do you think?
Members of rock bands generally protect their
ears from the loud sounds to prevent damage to
their hearing.
How do we determine the loudness of a sound?
What quantity is loudness measuring?
What units are used?
Name three ways you can reduce the loudness of the
music heard by a person in the audience.
32. +
+
What do you think?
• A violin, a trumpet, and a clarinet all play
the same note, a concert A. However, they
all sound different.
• What is the same about the sound?
• Are the frequencies produced the same?
• Are the wave patterns the same?
• Why do the instruments sound different?
33. +
+
Standing Waves
Standing waves are produced when two
identical waves travel in opposite
directions and interfere.
Interference alternates between constructive
and destructive.
Nodes are points where interference is
always destructive.
No motion happens here
Antinodes are points between the nodes
with maximum displacement.
34. +
+
Standing Waves
A string with both ends fixed
produces standing waves.
Only certain frequencies are possible.
A single loop = 12
wavelength
The one-loop wave (b) has a
wavelength of 2L.
The two-loop wave (c) has a
wavelength of L.
What is the wavelength of the
three-loop wave (d)?
2/3L
35. +
+
Standing Waves on a String
There is a node at each end because the
string is fixed at the ends.
The diagram shows three possible
standing wave patterns.
Standing waves are produced by
interference as waves travel in opposite
directions after plucking or bowing the
string.
The lowest frequency (one loop) is called
the fundamental frequency (f1).
36. +
+
Standing Waves on a String
Tothe left is a snapshot of a single loop standing
wave on a string of length, L.
What is the wavelength for this wave?
Answer: λ = 2L
What is the frequency?
Answer: f1
38. +
+
Harmonics
n is the number of loops or harmonic number.
v is the speed of the wave on the string.
Depends on tension and density of the string
L is the length of the vibrating portion of the
string.
How could you change the frequency (pitch) of a
string?
Editor's Notes
When asking students to express their ideas, you might try one of the following methods. (1) You could ask them to write their answers in their notebook and then discuss them. (2) You could ask them to first write their ideas and then share them with a small group of 3 or 4 students. At that time you can have each group present their consensus idea. This can be facilitated with the use of whiteboards for the groups. The most important aspect of eliciting student’s ideas is the acceptance of all ideas as valid. Do not correct or judge them. You might want to ask questions to help clarify their answers. You do not want to discourage students from thinking about these questions and just waiting for the correct answer from the teacher. Thank them for sharing their ideas. Misconceptions are common and can be dealt with if they are first expressed in writing and orally. These questions are designed to elicit ideas about sound. They will help you assess whether students really understand sound waves, how they travel, why they sound different, and so on. Continue discussion until all students have committed to ideas about these questions.
Ask students the difference between transverse and longitudinal waves as a review.
The video clip on the next slide shows the production of sounds waves, compressions and rarefactions, and the graph of pressure-position. Point out to students that the graph is simply a mathematical representation. It makes the wave appear to be transverse, so they must remember that each “crest” is really a compression or high pressure point.
Students may think of ultrasound as a medical procedure instead of as high-frequency sound waves. Ask them if they have ever had been around someone during an ultrasound examination or treatment. Did they hear any sound?
BEFORE SHOWING THIS SLIDE, ask your students if they have ever learned a method of determining the distance to the point where lightning strikes by watching and listening for the thunder. Some may know the rule (“Every 5 seconds is about a mile”) and some may have a wrong notion (“Every second is a mile”) or may not have any idea at all. After putting up this slide, ask them to calculate the time required for sound to travel a mile (1609 m). They should find the time required is 4.65 s (at 25°C). Since light arrives almost instantaneously, the time between lightning and thunder should be almost 5 seconds if the lightning is 1 mile away.
Point out to students that this diagram shows circles, not spheres, since it is only a 2-D view. In reality, sound waves propagate out from the source in three-dimensional spheres. Ask students to imagine the spheres getting farther and farther from the source. Hopefully they will be able to see that the spheres become nearly flat and parallel. You might ask them why Earth appears to be flat. It is a sphere, but we are a great distance from the center.
Before showing this slide, go to the website listed below: http://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/~grichert/sciweb/applets.html Choose “Sound” then choose “Doppler Effect 4”. This simulation allows you to place a sound source in the center and observe the waves while it is at rest. You can then ask the students: How would the sound compare for a person to the right and to the left of the source? How would the wave pattern change if the source is given a velocity to the right? How would the sound compare for the two observers now? At this time, you can drag out a small velocity arrow so the source begins to move. The ratio at the top is the speed of the source compared to the speed of the waves, so start with a value of about 0.3 and gradually increase it. it is interesting to see the effect of a speed greater than sound (ratio >1). A “shock wave” can be seen, similar to the wake behind a speed boat. There are other interesting Doppler Effect simulations that are worth exploring at this web site.
Students might say the sound is “louder” as the vehicle approaches and “quieter” as it moves away. This is true. But, it is not the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect refers to the observed change in pitch or frequency as the vehicle passes.
Students might say the sound is “louder” as the vehicle approaches and “quieter” as it moves away. This is true. But, it is not the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect refers to the observed change in pitch or frequency as the vehicle passes.
Sound is a longitudinal wave. All sounds occur as a result of vibrating objects. They may differ in frequency (pitch), loudness, or in other ways. Sounds can travel through any material (including solids, liquids, and gases), but not through a vacuum. The speed is greater in materials in which the molecules are tightly packed. The Doppler effect makes the pitch of the sound change when the source is moving. This is because the waves are more closely spaced (higher frequency) in front of the source of the sound as it moves.
When asking students to express their ideas, you might try one of the following methods. (1) You could ask them to write their answers in their notebook and then discuss them. (2) You could ask them to first write their ideas and then share them with a small group of 3 or 4 students. At that time you can have each group present their consensus idea. This can be facilitated with the use of whiteboards for the groups. The most important aspect of eliciting student’s ideas is the acceptance of all ideas as valid. Do not correct or judge them. You might want to ask questions to help clarify their answers. You do not want to discourage students from thinking about these questions and just waiting for the correct answer from the teacher. Thank them for sharing their ideas. Misconceptions are common and can be dealt with if they are first expressed in writing and orally. Students may know of decibels as a measure of sound level. If so, explore their understanding of it. Try to fully explore their understanding of the concept of loudness before starting the lesson.
Students should be able to deduce the equation for intensity from the definition. The equation is given on the next slide.
Point out to students the bel levels are zero through 15, and each time the intensity goes up by a factor of 10, the bel level increases by 1. For example, between rustling leaves (1 bel) and a vacuum cleaner (7 bels) there is a difference of 6 bels, so the intensity is 106 greater or 1 million times greater. You can see this factor in the intensity column ( 1 x 10-11 to 1 x 10-5 or 1 000 000 times louder).
Show the next slide to discuss the different combinations of frequency and intensity necessary to make sounds audible. Sounds with frequencies near 20 Hz or 20 000 Hz must be very intense in order to be heard.
Point out the dB levels that would be assigned to the intensities on the left.
Show students the video of the Tacoma narrows bridge collapse. A colorized and commented video is available at http://physics.kenyon.edu/coolphys/FranklinMiller/protected/tacoma.html The video is also available at wikipedia with slightly more footage.
Show students the video of the Tacoma narrows bridge collapse. A colorized and commented video is available at http://physics.kenyon.edu/coolphys/FranklinMiller/protected/tacoma.html The video is also available at wikipedia with slightly more footage.
Loudness measures the power (or energy per second) absorbed per square meter. It is called intensity. The units are watts/square meter, and these can be converted into decibels. To reduce the loudness, you can increase your distance from the source (r), decrease the power (P), or wear ear plugs to absorb some of the energy.
When asking students to express their ideas, you might try one of the following methods. (1) You could ask them to write their answers in their notebook and then discuss them. (2) You could ask them to first write their ideas and then share them with a small group of 3 or 4 students. At that time you can have each group present their consensus idea. This can be facilitated with the use of whiteboards for the groups. The most important aspect of eliciting student’s ideas is the acceptance of all ideas as valid. Do not correct or judge them. You might want to ask questions to help clarify their answers. You do not want to discourage students from thinking about these questions and just waiting for the correct answer from the teacher. Thank them for sharing their ideas. Misconceptions are common and can be dealt with if they are first expressed in writing and orally. This is a difficult concept. Comments may center on the string instrument vs. the wind instrument. If so, ask them to clarify why the instruments would sound different even if they play the same note. You could also ask why a violin and a viola (both string instruments) sound differently when playing the same note. This elicitation may raise more questions than provide answers. That is a very worthwhile process. You may want to make a note of the questions raised and be sure they are answered before the end of this section.
If possible, use the web site below prior to this slide. http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/ Choose “Wave” and then choose “Superposition Principle of Wave.” Change the frequency of each wave to 5 (this will be easier to see). Observe the two waves as they overlap. Point out to students that the standing wave pattern is the only thing an observer would see because it is the resultant of the two component waves. The red wave appears to be standing still (not moving right or left). Pause the simulation and show them the nodes (points that never move because the two components always cancel) and the antinodes (points that have the maximum displacement in each direction).
In order to see the wavelengths, trace a single path on the loop so students are not trying to analyze all five lines. Explain that these diagrams are like strobe photos showing five different positions for the wave as it moves.
To show how standing waves are produced, go to the following web site: http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph14e/ Choose “Standing Waves (Explanation by superposition).” When showing this, pause and point out that the nodes are produced by waves that always cancel. This demonstration shows a six loop standing wave.
Now that students understand why f1 = v/(2L), help them see why the wavelengths for the next three harmonics are as shown. It is helpful to look at just one segment of the wave instead of the four that are shown for each mode. Point out the “harmonic” terminology for each mode. These are sometimes called overtones instead of harmonics. The second harmonic is called the 1st overtone, and so on. Ask students to come up with a general equation for f in terms of v and L, using n where n represent the number of loops. Show them f1 = v/(2L), f2 = v/L, f3 = (3v)/(2L), and so on, and see if they see the pattern to write fn = ???? The answer is on next slide.
Shorter strings (decreased L) have higher pitches. Higher-tension strings (increased v) have higher pitchers. More dense strings (decreased v) have lower pitches. Point out to students that v in the equation is the speed of the waves as they move back and forth on the string. It is not the speed of the sound. The speed of waves on the string ranges from 100’s to 1000’s of m/s depending on the string tension and density. The vibrating string then produces sound waves that travel at 346 m/s (at 25°C) through the air.