The document discusses the production, propagation, and perception of sound. It explains that sound is produced by vibration and travels as a longitudinal wave through a medium by causing regions of high and low pressure called compressions and rarefactions. The human ear collects sound waves through the outer, middle, and inner ear which converts the vibrations into electrical signals for the brain to interpret as sound.
Complete and comprehensive study of the entire chapter with attractive pictorial representation of topic being discussed and Studied. Ideal material for students to get a gist of the entire Chapter, make projects, complete ppt slide presentation for self study and group discussion.
Complete and comprehensive study of the entire chapter with attractive pictorial representation of topic being discussed and Studied. Ideal material for students to get a gist of the entire Chapter, make projects, complete ppt slide presentation for self study and group discussion.
this chapter is nice for us as it is important in my life and please like it or it will be very usefull of you and pls like share comment and plese follow and dowload .
SOUND
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT
PROPAGATION OF SOUND
PRODUCTION OF SOUND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
SPEED OF A SOUND
WOODWINDS INSTRUMENTS
String INSTRUMENTS
Percussion INSTRUMENTS
Brass INSTRUMENTS
SOUND PRODUCED BY HUMANS
SPEED OF LIGHT V/S SOUND
SOUND PRODUCED BY ANIMAL
VIBRATION & OSCILLATION
LOUDNESS AND PITCH OF SOUND
HUMAN EARS
PERSISTENCE OF HEARING
Echo & REVERBERATION
AUDIBLE AND INAUDIBLE SOUND
NOISE AND MUSICAL SOUND
Noise pollution
HEARING IMPAIRMENT
SIGN LANGUAGE
Reflection of sound
Uses of multiple reflection of sound
SONAR
a ppt on sound
includes- what is sound
production of sound
propagation of sound
characteristics of sound
reflection of sound
applications of reflection of sound
range of frequencies
ultrasound and its 8 usages
hope it helpful :D
this chapter is nice for us as it is important in my life and please like it or it will be very usefull of you and pls like share comment and plese follow and dowload .
SOUND
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT
PROPAGATION OF SOUND
PRODUCTION OF SOUND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
SPEED OF A SOUND
WOODWINDS INSTRUMENTS
String INSTRUMENTS
Percussion INSTRUMENTS
Brass INSTRUMENTS
SOUND PRODUCED BY HUMANS
SPEED OF LIGHT V/S SOUND
SOUND PRODUCED BY ANIMAL
VIBRATION & OSCILLATION
LOUDNESS AND PITCH OF SOUND
HUMAN EARS
PERSISTENCE OF HEARING
Echo & REVERBERATION
AUDIBLE AND INAUDIBLE SOUND
NOISE AND MUSICAL SOUND
Noise pollution
HEARING IMPAIRMENT
SIGN LANGUAGE
Reflection of sound
Uses of multiple reflection of sound
SONAR
a ppt on sound
includes- what is sound
production of sound
propagation of sound
characteristics of sound
reflection of sound
applications of reflection of sound
range of frequencies
ultrasound and its 8 usages
hope it helpful :D
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
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at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
2. Activity :- Strike the prongs of a tuning
fork on a rubber pad and bring it near
the ear. We can hear a sound. If a
suspended table tennis ball is touched
with the vibrating prong, the ball is
pushed away repeatedly. This shows
that the prong is vibrating and
vibrating objects produces sound.
Sound is produced due to the vibration of objects.
Vibration is the rapid to and fro motion of an
object.
Eg :- The sound of human voice is produced due to
the vibration of the vocal cords.
A stretched rubber band when plucked vibrates
and produces sound
1) Production
of sound :-
Vibrating
tuning fork
Thread
3. 2) Propagation of sound :-
The sound produced by a vibrating object travels through a medium to a
listener. The medium can be solid, liquid or gas.
When an object vibrates, the particles around the medium vibrates. The
particle in contact with the vibrating object is first displaced from its equilibrium
position. It then exerts a force on the adjacent particle and the adjacent particle is
displaced from its position of rest. After displacing the adjacent particle the first
particle comes back to its original position. This process repeats in the medium
till the sound reaches the ear.
The disturbance produced by the vibrating body travels through the medium
but the particles do not move forward themselves.
A wave is a disturbance which moves through a medium by the vibration of the
particles of the medium. So sound is considered as a wave. Since sound waves
are produced due to the vibration of particles of the medium sound waves are
called mechanical waves.
4. AIR IS THE MOST COMMON MEDIUM THROUGH WHICH SOUND TRAVELS. WHEN A VIBRATING OBJECT MOVES
FORWARD, IT PUSHES AND COMPRESSES THE AIR IN FRONT OF IT FORMING A REGION OF HIGH PRESSURE CALLED
COMPRESSION (C). THE COMPRESSION MOVES AWAY FROM THE VIBRATING OBJECT. WHEN THE VIBRATING OBJECT
MOVES BACKWARD, IT FORMS A REGION OF LOW PRESSURE CALLED RAREFACTION (R). AS THE OBJECT MOVES TO
AND FRO RAPIDLY, IT PRODUCES A SERIES OF COMPRESSIONS AND RAREFACTION IN THE AIR WHICH MAKES THE
SOUND TO PROPAGATE IN THE MEDIUM.
5. A vibrating object producing a series of
compressions (C) and rarefaction (R)
6. 3) Sound needs a medium to travel :-
Sound is a mechanical wave and needs a medium for propagation. Sound travels through solids,
liquids and gases. Sound does not travel in vacuum.
Activity:-
Suspend an electric bell in an air tight bell jar. Connect the bell jar to a vacuum pump. If the
switch is pressed, we can hear the sound of the bell. If air is pumped out through the vacuum
pump, we cannot hear the sound of the bell. This shows that sound needs a medium to travel and
sound cannot travel in vacuum.
Cork
Bell jar
Electric bell
7. “
”
:4) Sound waves are longitudinal
waves -Activity :- Stretch a slinky and push and Sound propagates in a medium as a series of
compressions (C) and rarefactions (R).
In these waves the particles move back and forth parallel to the direction of propagation of the
disturbance. Such waves are called longitudinal waves.
There is another kind of waves called transverse waves. In these waves the particles oscillate up
and down perpendicular to the propagation of the direction of disturbancepull it alternately at one
end. If you mark a dot on the slinky, the dot moves back and forth parallel to the direction of the
propagation of the disturbance.
8. 5) Characteristics of a sound wave :-
Sound wave can be described by its frequency, amplitude and speed.
Sound can be graphically represented as a wave. There is changes in the density and
pressure as sound moves in a medium.
Compressions are the regions of high pressure and density where the particles are crowded
and are represented by the upper portion of the curve called crest.
Rarefactions are the regions of low pressure and density where the particles are spread out
and are represented by the lower portion of the curve called trough.
The distance between two consecutive compressions (crests) or two consecutive troughs is
called wave length. It is represented by the symbol . (Greek letter lamda). Its SI unit is metre
(m).
compression rarefaction
Crest
Trough
λλ
PressureorDensity
λ
10. The time taken for the change in the density of the medium from a maximum value to a minimum value and
again to the maximum value is the time period of the sound wave.
Or
The time taken for one complete oscillation in the density of the medium is called the time period of the
sound wave.
It is represented by the letter T.
The SI unit is second (s).
Frequency and time are represented as follows :-
٧ for one oscillation
1 1
T = ---- or ٧ = ----
٧ T
11. iii) Amplitude of sound wave :-
The magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either
side of the mean value is the amplitude of the sound wave.
Or
The amplitude of sound wave is the height of the crest or tough.
It is represented by the letter A.
The SI unit is the same as that of density or pressure.
Wavedisturbance
Wavelength and Amplitude
The wavelength is the distance between the "crests" of two waves that are next to
each other. The amplitude is how high the crests are.
12. iv) Pitch and loudness of sound :-
The pitch of sound (shrillness or flatness) depends on the frequency of vibration.
If the frequency is high, the sound has high pitch and if the frequency is low,
the sound has low pitch.
Wavelength, Frequency, and Pitch
Since the sounds are travelling at about the same speed, the one with the shorter wavelength
will go by more frequently; it has a higher frequency, or pitch. In other words, it sounds higher.
13. The loudness of sound depends upon the amplitude of
vibration.
If the amplitude is bigger, the sound is loud and if the
amplitude is smaller, the sound is soft.
Amplitude is Loudness
The size of a wave (how much it is "piled up" at the high points) is its amplitude. For
sound waves, the bigger the amplitude, the louder the sound.
14. v) Speed of sound :-
The speed of sound is different in different media. The speed of
sound is more in solids, less in liquids and least in gases.
The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the
medium. If the temperature of the medium is more, the speed of
sound is more.
Speed of sound in different media at 250C.
Relationship between
Speed (v), frequency
(٧) and wave length
(λ)
Speed = wave length x
frequency
v = λ x ٧
15. Like light, sound gets reflected at the surface of a solid or liquid and follows the laws
of reflection.
i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.
Activity :- Take two pipes of the same length and arrange them on a
table near a wall or metal plate. Keep a clock near the open end of one
pipe and try to hear the sound of the clock through the other pipe by
adjusting the position of the pipe.
Now measure the angles of incidence
and reflection. Then lift the second
pipe and try to hear the sound.
It will be seen that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. The incident ray, the
reflected ray and normal all lie in
the same plane.
16. 7a)Echo:-
If we shout or clap near a reflecting surface like tall building or a
mountain, we hear the same sound again. This sound which we hear is
called echo. It is caused due to the reflection of sound.
To hear an echo clearly, the time interval between the original
sound and the echo must be at least 0.1 s.
Since the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s, the distance travelled
by sound in 0.I s = 344 m/s x 0.1 s = 34.4 m
So to hear an echo clearly, the minimum distance of the reflecting
surface should be half this distance, that is 17.2 m.
b) Reverberation :-
Echoes may be heard more than once due to repeated or multiple
reflections of sound from several reflecting surfaces. This causes
persistence of sound called reverberation.
In big halls or auditoriums to reduce reverberation, the roofs and
walls are covered by sound absorbing materials like compressed fibre
boards, rough plaster or draperies.
17. sounds from the human body through a
stethoscope. The soun i) Megaphones, horns, musical instruments like
trumpets, shehnais
etc. are deigned to send sound by multiple reflection in a particular
direction without spreading in all directions.
ii) Doctors listen to d of heartbeat reaches the doctor’s ears by
multiple reflection.
iii) Generally the ceilings of cinema halls and auditoriums are curved
so that sound after multiple reflection reaches all parts of the hall.
Sometimes a curved sound board is placed behind the stage so that
sound after multiple reflection spreads evenly across the hall.
19. i) Ultrasonic sound is used to clean objects like electronic
components. The components to be cleaned are kept in a
cleaning solution and ultrasonic waves are sent into the
solution. Due to the high frequency, the dirt particles get
detached from the components.
ii) Ultrasonic sound is used to detect cracks in metal
blocks. Ultrasonic waves are sent through the metal
blocks and if there are cracks, the waves are reflected
back and the cracks can be detected.
iii) Ultrasonic sound is used in ultra sound scanners for
getting images of internal organs of the human body.
iv) Ultrasonic sound is used to break small stones formed in
the kidneys into fine grains so that they are removed
through the urine.
20. Sonar stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging. It is a device which uses
ultrasonic waves to measure distance, direction and speed of underwater objects.
Sonar has a transmitter and a detector installed in ships. The transmitter
produces ultrasonic sound waves which travel through the water and after striking
the object in the sea bed is reflected back to the detector.
The distance of the object can be calculated by knowing the speed of sound in
water and the time taken between the transmission and reception of ultrasound.
If the time taken for the transmission and reception of ultra sound is t and the
distance travelled is 2d by the ultra sound, then 2d = v x t
or d = v x t
2
10) SONAR:-
21. 11) Structure of the human ear :-
The outer ear called pinna collects the sound waves. The sound waves
passes through the ear canal to a thin membrane called eardrum. The
eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are amplified by the three bones of the
middle ear called hammer, anvil and stirrup. The middle ear then
transmits the sound waves to the inner ear. In the inner ear the sound
waves are converted into electrical signals by the cochlea and sent to the
brain through the auditory nerves. The brain then interprets the signals as
sound.
Pinna
Hammer Anvil
Stirrup
Cochlea