The document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment. It discusses:
1) Key figures of the Scientific Revolution like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, Boyle, Newton who developed new scientific theories and methods of observation and experimentation that displaced old views.
2) Advances in astronomy, medicine, and chemistry during this period based on new empirical approaches.
3) How the Enlightenment was influenced by the Scientific Revolution and figures like Locke and Newton. Philosophes like Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Diderot spread new ideas through works and salons.
4) Enlightenment thinkers believed in using reason to reform society through principles like
The Scientific Revolution occurred between 1540-1690 and marked a change in both science and thought. Key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton challenged the existing geocentric view of the universe and developed the scientific method. Their work established a heliocentric model of the solar system and formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation. This revolution shifted views on the relationship between science and religion and had wide-ranging impacts on how people understood the natural world.
1) The Scientific Revolution developed during the Renaissance as scientists began questioning traditional beliefs about the natural world that were based on Aristotle and the Bible.
2) Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton challenged the geocentric model of the universe and developed the heliocentric model through observations and experiments.
3) Their work established the foundations of the modern scientific method of using experimentation and evidence rather than past authorities to understand the natural world.
The scientific revolution began in the 16th century as scholars started challenging ancient authorities and religious doctrines. New tools like the telescope and microscope enabled more precise observations, while advances in math provided ways to analyze data. Copernicus and Kepler proposed models of the solar system contradicting the geocentric Ptolemaic system. Galileo's telescope observations further disproved Ptolemy, though the Church condemned his findings. Newton later defined gravity and laws of motion unifying earlier ideas. Despite some contributions from women, the new empirical and reason-based scientific approach became dominated by male thinkers like Descartes, who separated body from mind, and Bacon, who advocated using science to understand and control nature.
1) Prior to the Scientific Revolution, most Europeans believed in the geocentric model that the Earth was at the center of the universe.
2) Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton helped establish the heliocentric model through observations, experiments, and mathematical laws.
3) The Scientific Revolution established the modern scientific method and fundamentally changed how people understood the universe.
The Scientific Revolution was driven by several major factors in the 16th-17th centuries including the rise of universities, recovery of classical texts, and individuals being able to pursue scientific investigation with patronage. Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the universe, with the sun at the center, challenging the Ptolemaic geocentric view. Kepler formulated the laws of planetary motion providing mathematical proofs for the heliocentric theory. Galileo provided further evidence for heliocentrism through his astronomical observations with an improved telescope. Newton later synthesized the works of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo by formulating the law of universal gravitation, proving the universe followed precise mathematical relationships.
The document summarizes key figures and developments during the Scientific Revolution. It discusses how Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model that the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun, contradicting the geocentric model. Galileo later confirmed Copernicus' theory using a telescope, though the Catholic Church condemned his findings. Isaac Newton then built upon these ideas by formulating the law of universal gravitation and laws of motion. Overall, the Scientific Revolution involved questioning prior beliefs and relying on experimentation and reasoning to better understand the natural world.
The document discusses the Scientific Revolution that occurred between the 16th and 18th centuries. It overthrew the Aristotelian worldview and established new scientific methods and theories. Key figures discussed include Copernicus, who proposed a sun-centered model of the universe; Galileo, who made discoveries with the telescope and challenged Aristotelian physics; and Newton, who formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation. The Scientific Revolution established the modern scientific community and view of the universe as operating by natural laws discoverable through reason and experimentation. It also influenced the Enlightenment period, where thinkers applied scientific rationalism to critique the old regime and advocate progress, equality, and inalienable rights.
The history of science developed as an academic discipline in the early 20th century as the role of science changed. Two influential events in the 1930s helped establish the field's focus on external influences on science: Boris Hessen argued that Newton's work was influenced by 17th century industry, and Ludwik Fleck presented the social nature of scientific knowledge and thought styles. After WWII, Vannevar Bush and James Conant encouraged the study of history of science to improve understanding of science. Thomas Kuhn's 1962 book challenged the view of science as a linear march of progress, arguing scientific revolutions occurred through paradigm shifts, influencing views of science outside academia.
The Scientific Revolution occurred between 1540-1690 and marked a change in both science and thought. Key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton challenged the existing geocentric view of the universe and developed the scientific method. Their work established a heliocentric model of the solar system and formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation. This revolution shifted views on the relationship between science and religion and had wide-ranging impacts on how people understood the natural world.
1) The Scientific Revolution developed during the Renaissance as scientists began questioning traditional beliefs about the natural world that were based on Aristotle and the Bible.
2) Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton challenged the geocentric model of the universe and developed the heliocentric model through observations and experiments.
3) Their work established the foundations of the modern scientific method of using experimentation and evidence rather than past authorities to understand the natural world.
The scientific revolution began in the 16th century as scholars started challenging ancient authorities and religious doctrines. New tools like the telescope and microscope enabled more precise observations, while advances in math provided ways to analyze data. Copernicus and Kepler proposed models of the solar system contradicting the geocentric Ptolemaic system. Galileo's telescope observations further disproved Ptolemy, though the Church condemned his findings. Newton later defined gravity and laws of motion unifying earlier ideas. Despite some contributions from women, the new empirical and reason-based scientific approach became dominated by male thinkers like Descartes, who separated body from mind, and Bacon, who advocated using science to understand and control nature.
1) Prior to the Scientific Revolution, most Europeans believed in the geocentric model that the Earth was at the center of the universe.
2) Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton helped establish the heliocentric model through observations, experiments, and mathematical laws.
3) The Scientific Revolution established the modern scientific method and fundamentally changed how people understood the universe.
The Scientific Revolution was driven by several major factors in the 16th-17th centuries including the rise of universities, recovery of classical texts, and individuals being able to pursue scientific investigation with patronage. Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the universe, with the sun at the center, challenging the Ptolemaic geocentric view. Kepler formulated the laws of planetary motion providing mathematical proofs for the heliocentric theory. Galileo provided further evidence for heliocentrism through his astronomical observations with an improved telescope. Newton later synthesized the works of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo by formulating the law of universal gravitation, proving the universe followed precise mathematical relationships.
The document summarizes key figures and developments during the Scientific Revolution. It discusses how Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model that the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun, contradicting the geocentric model. Galileo later confirmed Copernicus' theory using a telescope, though the Catholic Church condemned his findings. Isaac Newton then built upon these ideas by formulating the law of universal gravitation and laws of motion. Overall, the Scientific Revolution involved questioning prior beliefs and relying on experimentation and reasoning to better understand the natural world.
The document discusses the Scientific Revolution that occurred between the 16th and 18th centuries. It overthrew the Aristotelian worldview and established new scientific methods and theories. Key figures discussed include Copernicus, who proposed a sun-centered model of the universe; Galileo, who made discoveries with the telescope and challenged Aristotelian physics; and Newton, who formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation. The Scientific Revolution established the modern scientific community and view of the universe as operating by natural laws discoverable through reason and experimentation. It also influenced the Enlightenment period, where thinkers applied scientific rationalism to critique the old regime and advocate progress, equality, and inalienable rights.
The history of science developed as an academic discipline in the early 20th century as the role of science changed. Two influential events in the 1930s helped establish the field's focus on external influences on science: Boris Hessen argued that Newton's work was influenced by 17th century industry, and Ludwik Fleck presented the social nature of scientific knowledge and thought styles. After WWII, Vannevar Bush and James Conant encouraged the study of history of science to improve understanding of science. Thomas Kuhn's 1962 book challenged the view of science as a linear march of progress, arguing scientific revolutions occurred through paradigm shifts, influencing views of science outside academia.
The document discusses intellectual revolutions that defined society, focusing on scientific revolutions from the 14th to 18th centuries in Europe. It describes how early philosophers developed ideas about the natural world, and how the scientific revolution challenged existing religious views and established the scientific method. The revolution transformed society by establishing science as a discipline and field of inquiry, and shifting views about the relationship between humanity, nature, and the cosmos from geocentric to heliocentric models. Key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler played important roles in this intellectual transformation through their scientific theories and observations.
The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural sciences and social sciences. (The history of the arts and humanities is termed as the history of scholarship.) Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods by which historians study the history of science.
The English word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century.[1] Previously, people investigating nature called themselves "natural philosophers". While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales and Aristotle), and scientific method has been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham and Roger Bacon), modern science began to develop in the early modern period, and in particular in the scientific revolution of 16th- and 17th-century Europe.[2] Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those earlier inquiries.[3]
From the 18th century through late 20th century, the history of science, especially of the physical and biological sciences, was often presented in a progressive narrative in which true theories replaced false beliefs.[4] Some more recent historical interpretations, such as those of Thomas Kuhn, tend to portray the history of science in different terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science
The document summarizes the Scientific Revolution, which established modern science. It discusses key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, and how they challenged Aristotle's geocentric model and developed the heliocentric model and laws of motion and gravity. The Scientific Revolution established empiricism and the scientific method. It led to advances in fields like astronomy, physics, chemistry, anatomy, and more. The Royal Societies also supported the exchange of new scientific ideas. Overall, the Scientific Revolution transformed how people viewed the world and pursued knowledge.
During the Scientific Revolution, a new understanding of the world developed as discoveries led scholars to challenge traditional thought. Figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Vesalius used the scientific method and observations from tools like the telescope and microscope to prove theories like Copernicus' model of a sun-centered solar system, overturning the church-sanctioned view. This shift to logical, evidence-based thought influenced both scientific inquiry and democratic political ideas.
The document summarizes key developments during the Scientific Revolution from the 15th to 17th centuries. It describes how medieval scientists relied on Aristotle but thinkers during the Renaissance discovered other ancient works that disagreed with Aristotle and spurred new observations. Figures like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton developed theories like heliocentrism and gravity that formed the basis of modern science. It also discusses advances in astronomy, medicine, chemistry and the origins of the scientific method during this revolutionary period.
The document discusses key figures of the Scientific Revolution including Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, Bacon, and Descartes. It outlines their major contributions which challenged the Ptolemaic view of the universe and established new theories of astronomy, physics, and the scientific method through observation, experimentation, and mathematics.
This document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and its key figures such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton. It discusses how prior to this period, most people believed in the geocentric model of the universe described by Greek philosophers. However, the Scientific Revolution involved figures like Copernicus publishing the heliocentric theory in 1543, Kepler using math to prove elliptical planetary motion in 1601, and Galileo supporting Copernicus and facing persecution from the Catholic Church for doing so. Finally, it describes how Newton built upon these earlier thinkers by using the scientific method and mathematics to develop his theory of universal gravitation, helping to establish the heliocentric model and mechanistic view of the universe.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of modern science. It discusses ancient science from figures like Aristotle and developments during the Islamic Golden Age. It then covers the Renaissance period and shifts towards observation and experimentation. The Scientific Revolution of the 16th-17th centuries involved replacing Aristotelian views with modern science through figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton who developed the scientific method. The Enlightenment in the 18th century furthered scientific thought. The Industrial Revolution then brought changes from technological and economic development.
The scientific revolution emerged in the early modern period and transformed views of society and nature. Before 1500, Aristotle and the Bible were the sole authorities, and the geocentric model of a Earth-centered universe was dominant. However, three scientists challenged these traditional views: Copernicus proposed in the mid-1500s that the Earth revolved around the sun, Galileo used a telescope in the early 1600s to observe evidence supporting this, and Newton later established the law of universal gravitation in the late 1600s.
The scientific and_industrial_revolutionEspirituanna
The document discusses the Scientific Revolution from 1440-1690 and key contributors. It summarizes that the Scientific Revolution fundamentally transformed assumptions about the universe by rejecting Aristotle's geocentric model in favor of the heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus and proved by Kepler's laws and Galileo's work. It culminated in Newton's formulation of the laws of motion and universal law of gravitation, establishing modern science.
Science has developed greatly from ancient to modern times. In ancient times, myths and superstitions dominated beliefs about the natural world. During the Scientific Revolution from 1500-1700, early scientists like Galileo, Kepler, and Newton established the foundations of modern science through experimentation and mathematical analysis of the natural world. Their work helped shift views away from ancient authorities like Aristotle and towards evidence-based understanding. Today, science continues to advance our knowledge through rigorous testing of hypotheses and theories against facts gathered through observation and experimentation.
An overview of the Scientific Revolution to go with lesson plans on the subject at the History Teaching Institute at Ohio State University
http://hti.osu.edu/scientificrevolution/lesson_plans
The document traces the evolution and development of science education globally and in India through various landmarks. Some key developments globally included Roger Bacon emphasizing the value of experiments, the establishment of the Royal Society in 1664, and the introduction of science in school curriculums in the 19th century. In India, major developments included the recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission in 1953 to integrate science education, establishment of the NCERT Department of Science Education in 1961, and the National Policy on Education in 1986 emphasizing science education. The document provides details on committees, policies and initiatives that have shaped science education in India over time.
The document discusses key figures and developments during the Age of Reason (17th-18th centuries) including:
- Hippocrates who rejected disease as supernatural punishment and established the Hippocratic Oath.
- Euclid who founded mathematics and wrote the influential textbook "Elements".
- Copernicus and Galileo who proposed and supported the heliocentric model of the solar system, challenging biblical views.
- Sir Isaac Newton who discovered gravity and laws of motion and developed calculus.
- Advances in many fields including astronomy, chemistry, anatomy through figures like Halley, Herschel, Paracelsus, Vesalius, Harvey, Jenner, Boyle, and Lavoisier.
Uti index-papers-e-chapter5-religion-philosophy-and-scienceHideumi Sekiguchi
This document examines the historical relationship between religion, philosophy, and science. It finds that throughout much of history:
1) Religion and philosophy often guided and supported the development of science by providing worldviews and direction for scientific inquiry.
2) Conflicts between religion/philosophy and science were usually not about the existence of God, but rather struggles between old and new views of nature.
3) Science has progressed according to God's providence, with mathematical and scientific discoveries often later being applied in unexpected ways. Religion and philosophy have played an important role in cultural progress despite occasional conflicts with science.
The document discusses the key ideas and figures of the Enlightenment period in Europe. It began as an expansion of ideas from the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance, emphasizing reason and secularism over tradition and superstition. Major Enlightenment thinkers like Kant and Voltaire advocated using reason to understand the world and promote tolerance. They helped establish the "Republic of Letters" through salons and publications like Diderot's Encyclopedia, which aimed to compile all knowledge.
Eighteenth Century France
What was the Enlightenment?
Ideas that originated during the Enlightenment
WHAT EVENTS WERE CATALYSTS FOR THE ENLIGHTENMENT?
OTHER CAUSES OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th century)
Bacon’s Scientific Method
Isaac Newton
18th century Enlightenment – The Age of Reason
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The document discusses two major intellectual revolutions - the Copernican revolution and Darwinian evolution. The Copernican revolution established the heliocentric model of the solar system with the sun at the center, as discovered by Nicholas Copernicus in the 16th century. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, established in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, proposed that species evolve over generations through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to survive and reproduce. The document provides background on Copernicus, Galileo, and Darwin, and summarizes some of the key evidence and ideas that influenced their revolutionary scientific theories.
The document summarizes key events and developments during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment era from 1550-1789:
1) Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo and Newton revolutionized scientific thinking by developing theories like heliocentrism and the laws of gravity based on empirical evidence and experimentation, challenging the dominant religious orthodoxies.
2) Enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire, Locke, and Rousseau popularized ideas of reason, individual rights, and religious tolerance which spread new secular thinking across Europe.
3) These ideas influenced the American Revolution, with colonists drawing on Enlightenment principles of natural rights and consent of the governed in the Declaration of Independence to declare
The Scientific Revolution from 1550-1800 CE marked a period of immense change in scientific thought and discovery. Figures like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton developed theories that displaced Earth from the center of the universe and established gravity and laws of motion, overturning Aristotelian conceptions. Advances in fields like astronomy, physics, chemistry and medicine established new empirical and mathematical approaches to understanding the natural world through observation and experimentation. The scientific method developed during this time established an evidence-based framework for scientific inquiry that remains influential.
The Scientific Revolution of the 1500s-1600s marked a shift away from merely accepting traditional ideas to making conclusions based on experimentation and observation. Copernicus published a book in 1543 arguing the sun, not Earth, was the center of the universe, contradicting the existing Ptolemaic geocentric model. Galileo built upon this, using a telescope to observe moons orbiting Jupiter which supported the heliocentric theory, though he was later put under house arrest for contradicting the Church. Newton later formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation, proving the existence of gravity through mathematics. The Scientific Revolution established the scientific method of testing hypotheses through experimentation and observation.
The document discusses intellectual revolutions that defined society, focusing on scientific revolutions from the 14th to 18th centuries in Europe. It describes how early philosophers developed ideas about the natural world, and how the scientific revolution challenged existing religious views and established the scientific method. The revolution transformed society by establishing science as a discipline and field of inquiry, and shifting views about the relationship between humanity, nature, and the cosmos from geocentric to heliocentric models. Key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler played important roles in this intellectual transformation through their scientific theories and observations.
The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural sciences and social sciences. (The history of the arts and humanities is termed as the history of scholarship.) Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods by which historians study the history of science.
The English word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century.[1] Previously, people investigating nature called themselves "natural philosophers". While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales and Aristotle), and scientific method has been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham and Roger Bacon), modern science began to develop in the early modern period, and in particular in the scientific revolution of 16th- and 17th-century Europe.[2] Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those earlier inquiries.[3]
From the 18th century through late 20th century, the history of science, especially of the physical and biological sciences, was often presented in a progressive narrative in which true theories replaced false beliefs.[4] Some more recent historical interpretations, such as those of Thomas Kuhn, tend to portray the history of science in different terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science
The document summarizes the Scientific Revolution, which established modern science. It discusses key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, and how they challenged Aristotle's geocentric model and developed the heliocentric model and laws of motion and gravity. The Scientific Revolution established empiricism and the scientific method. It led to advances in fields like astronomy, physics, chemistry, anatomy, and more. The Royal Societies also supported the exchange of new scientific ideas. Overall, the Scientific Revolution transformed how people viewed the world and pursued knowledge.
During the Scientific Revolution, a new understanding of the world developed as discoveries led scholars to challenge traditional thought. Figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Vesalius used the scientific method and observations from tools like the telescope and microscope to prove theories like Copernicus' model of a sun-centered solar system, overturning the church-sanctioned view. This shift to logical, evidence-based thought influenced both scientific inquiry and democratic political ideas.
The document summarizes key developments during the Scientific Revolution from the 15th to 17th centuries. It describes how medieval scientists relied on Aristotle but thinkers during the Renaissance discovered other ancient works that disagreed with Aristotle and spurred new observations. Figures like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton developed theories like heliocentrism and gravity that formed the basis of modern science. It also discusses advances in astronomy, medicine, chemistry and the origins of the scientific method during this revolutionary period.
The document discusses key figures of the Scientific Revolution including Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, Bacon, and Descartes. It outlines their major contributions which challenged the Ptolemaic view of the universe and established new theories of astronomy, physics, and the scientific method through observation, experimentation, and mathematics.
This document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and its key figures such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton. It discusses how prior to this period, most people believed in the geocentric model of the universe described by Greek philosophers. However, the Scientific Revolution involved figures like Copernicus publishing the heliocentric theory in 1543, Kepler using math to prove elliptical planetary motion in 1601, and Galileo supporting Copernicus and facing persecution from the Catholic Church for doing so. Finally, it describes how Newton built upon these earlier thinkers by using the scientific method and mathematics to develop his theory of universal gravitation, helping to establish the heliocentric model and mechanistic view of the universe.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of modern science. It discusses ancient science from figures like Aristotle and developments during the Islamic Golden Age. It then covers the Renaissance period and shifts towards observation and experimentation. The Scientific Revolution of the 16th-17th centuries involved replacing Aristotelian views with modern science through figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton who developed the scientific method. The Enlightenment in the 18th century furthered scientific thought. The Industrial Revolution then brought changes from technological and economic development.
The scientific revolution emerged in the early modern period and transformed views of society and nature. Before 1500, Aristotle and the Bible were the sole authorities, and the geocentric model of a Earth-centered universe was dominant. However, three scientists challenged these traditional views: Copernicus proposed in the mid-1500s that the Earth revolved around the sun, Galileo used a telescope in the early 1600s to observe evidence supporting this, and Newton later established the law of universal gravitation in the late 1600s.
The scientific and_industrial_revolutionEspirituanna
The document discusses the Scientific Revolution from 1440-1690 and key contributors. It summarizes that the Scientific Revolution fundamentally transformed assumptions about the universe by rejecting Aristotle's geocentric model in favor of the heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus and proved by Kepler's laws and Galileo's work. It culminated in Newton's formulation of the laws of motion and universal law of gravitation, establishing modern science.
Science has developed greatly from ancient to modern times. In ancient times, myths and superstitions dominated beliefs about the natural world. During the Scientific Revolution from 1500-1700, early scientists like Galileo, Kepler, and Newton established the foundations of modern science through experimentation and mathematical analysis of the natural world. Their work helped shift views away from ancient authorities like Aristotle and towards evidence-based understanding. Today, science continues to advance our knowledge through rigorous testing of hypotheses and theories against facts gathered through observation and experimentation.
An overview of the Scientific Revolution to go with lesson plans on the subject at the History Teaching Institute at Ohio State University
http://hti.osu.edu/scientificrevolution/lesson_plans
The document traces the evolution and development of science education globally and in India through various landmarks. Some key developments globally included Roger Bacon emphasizing the value of experiments, the establishment of the Royal Society in 1664, and the introduction of science in school curriculums in the 19th century. In India, major developments included the recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission in 1953 to integrate science education, establishment of the NCERT Department of Science Education in 1961, and the National Policy on Education in 1986 emphasizing science education. The document provides details on committees, policies and initiatives that have shaped science education in India over time.
The document discusses key figures and developments during the Age of Reason (17th-18th centuries) including:
- Hippocrates who rejected disease as supernatural punishment and established the Hippocratic Oath.
- Euclid who founded mathematics and wrote the influential textbook "Elements".
- Copernicus and Galileo who proposed and supported the heliocentric model of the solar system, challenging biblical views.
- Sir Isaac Newton who discovered gravity and laws of motion and developed calculus.
- Advances in many fields including astronomy, chemistry, anatomy through figures like Halley, Herschel, Paracelsus, Vesalius, Harvey, Jenner, Boyle, and Lavoisier.
Uti index-papers-e-chapter5-religion-philosophy-and-scienceHideumi Sekiguchi
This document examines the historical relationship between religion, philosophy, and science. It finds that throughout much of history:
1) Religion and philosophy often guided and supported the development of science by providing worldviews and direction for scientific inquiry.
2) Conflicts between religion/philosophy and science were usually not about the existence of God, but rather struggles between old and new views of nature.
3) Science has progressed according to God's providence, with mathematical and scientific discoveries often later being applied in unexpected ways. Religion and philosophy have played an important role in cultural progress despite occasional conflicts with science.
The document discusses the key ideas and figures of the Enlightenment period in Europe. It began as an expansion of ideas from the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance, emphasizing reason and secularism over tradition and superstition. Major Enlightenment thinkers like Kant and Voltaire advocated using reason to understand the world and promote tolerance. They helped establish the "Republic of Letters" through salons and publications like Diderot's Encyclopedia, which aimed to compile all knowledge.
Eighteenth Century France
What was the Enlightenment?
Ideas that originated during the Enlightenment
WHAT EVENTS WERE CATALYSTS FOR THE ENLIGHTENMENT?
OTHER CAUSES OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th century)
Bacon’s Scientific Method
Isaac Newton
18th century Enlightenment – The Age of Reason
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The document discusses two major intellectual revolutions - the Copernican revolution and Darwinian evolution. The Copernican revolution established the heliocentric model of the solar system with the sun at the center, as discovered by Nicholas Copernicus in the 16th century. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, established in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, proposed that species evolve over generations through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to survive and reproduce. The document provides background on Copernicus, Galileo, and Darwin, and summarizes some of the key evidence and ideas that influenced their revolutionary scientific theories.
The document summarizes key events and developments during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment era from 1550-1789:
1) Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo and Newton revolutionized scientific thinking by developing theories like heliocentrism and the laws of gravity based on empirical evidence and experimentation, challenging the dominant religious orthodoxies.
2) Enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire, Locke, and Rousseau popularized ideas of reason, individual rights, and religious tolerance which spread new secular thinking across Europe.
3) These ideas influenced the American Revolution, with colonists drawing on Enlightenment principles of natural rights and consent of the governed in the Declaration of Independence to declare
The Scientific Revolution from 1550-1800 CE marked a period of immense change in scientific thought and discovery. Figures like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton developed theories that displaced Earth from the center of the universe and established gravity and laws of motion, overturning Aristotelian conceptions. Advances in fields like astronomy, physics, chemistry and medicine established new empirical and mathematical approaches to understanding the natural world through observation and experimentation. The scientific method developed during this time established an evidence-based framework for scientific inquiry that remains influential.
The Scientific Revolution of the 1500s-1600s marked a shift away from merely accepting traditional ideas to making conclusions based on experimentation and observation. Copernicus published a book in 1543 arguing the sun, not Earth, was the center of the universe, contradicting the existing Ptolemaic geocentric model. Galileo built upon this, using a telescope to observe moons orbiting Jupiter which supported the heliocentric theory, though he was later put under house arrest for contradicting the Church. Newton later formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation, proving the existence of gravity through mathematics. The Scientific Revolution established the scientific method of testing hypotheses through experimentation and observation.
The Scientific Revolution of the 1500s and 1600s changed how Europeans viewed the world by encouraging conclusions based on experimentation rather than tradition. Copernicus published a theory that the Earth revolved around the sun, contradicting Ptolemy's geocentric model, while Galileo and Kepler provided evidence supporting Copernicus through observations with early telescopes and mathematical calculations. Newton later built on this work by formulating laws of motion and gravity and proving the existence and properties of light through experimentation and the new scientific method. These advances established modern science.
The Scientific Revolution, which is a modern term to describe the precursor to contemporary science, refers to a period of changing doctrinal beliefs and using a more scientific approach to find out logical truth. Factors such as the Renaissance, Reformation, weakening of the Roman Catholic Church, are some major factors which lead to the Scientific Revolution. Furthermore, this powerpoint will cover a series of "scientists" or philosophers who had the courage to change the mentality of Europe during the 1400s up until 1727.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emphasized reason, science, and individualism rather than tradition. During this era, scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and Boyle made discoveries that challenged traditional beliefs and established the scientific method. Philosophers such as Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and others promoted ideals of liberty, constitutional government, freedom of religion, and separation of powers. Their works helped spread ideals of the Enlightenment and encouraged using reason to improve society and advance human knowledge.
The document discusses the paradigm shift that occurred during the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution, where people began thinking critically and questioning established authorities. This led to advances in science through figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Bacon, Descartes, and Newton. It also led to new political philosophies around natural rights and limited government through Enlightenment philosophers like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau, influencing revolutions in England, America, and France.
The Scientific Revolution began in the 16th century with Copernicus proposing that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe. This challenged the geocentric model endorsed by the Catholic Church. Galileo built upon Copernicus' theory with astronomical observations using his telescope. He proved that Copernicus was right, which put him in direct conflict with the Church. Other influential scientists included Tycho Brahe, who made highly accurate observations of planetary motions, and Johannes Kepler, who described the orbits of planets. Isaac Newton then synthesized the work of previous scientists with his law of universal gravitation and laws of motion, establishing classical mechanics.
1. The document discusses several intellectual revolutions that defined society, including the Scientific Revolution, Copernican Revolution, and Darwinian Revolution.
2. During the Scientific Revolution, thinkers began challenging Aristotle's theories and relying more on experimentation, leading to new theories of science. Copernicus proposed that the sun, not Earth, was the center of the solar system.
3. Galileo and Kepler further developed the heliocentric model through observations with telescopes. Newton later formulated laws of motion and gravity, cementing the new scientific worldview.
4. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection completed the revolution in biology by providing a natural explanation for the diversity of life without invoking supernatural causes.
The document discusses key figures of the Scientific Revolution from the 15th to 17th centuries who helped transition Europe from doctrinal passivity to an emphasis on scientific inquiry and experimentation. It describes the contributions of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Newton, Bacon, Harvey, and Einstein. Their works challenged prior assumptions, established new methodologies like the scientific method, and laid the foundations for modern science in fields like astronomy, physics, mathematics, and medicine.
The document provides information about key figures and developments during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment era in Europe between 1500-1700:
- During this time, European thinkers began relying more on reasoning and experimentation rather than traditional beliefs, leading to advances in science and the scientific method. This sparked the Scientific Revolution and an explosion of new knowledge.
- Thinkers like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton contributed greatly to developments in astronomy, physics, and the understanding that the universe follows definite natural laws.
- The Scientific Revolution influenced the Enlightenment period in the 1700s, where it was believed that applying reason could solve social and political problems and free people from ignorance.
- Political philosophers
The document discusses key developments during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment period in Europe between 1500-1800. It introduces several important figures such as Copernicus, who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system; Galileo, who was persecuted for his scientific discoveries; Descartes, who emphasized reasoning and doubt; Newton, who formulated laws of gravity and motion; and Locke, who proposed social contract theory and influenced the founders of America. The Enlightenment values of reason, science, liberty, and progress had a profound impact on thinking during this time.
The Scientific Revolution involved a new way of thinking that challenged traditional views. Copernicus developed a heliocentric model of the solar system that placed the Sun, not Earth, at the center. Kepler later proved that planets orbit in ellipses, not circles. Galileo used a telescope to observe craters on the Moon and moons orbiting Jupiter, supporting Copernicus' theory. Newton later published Principia, explaining gravity and its effects on planetary motion. Discoveries were also made in biology through anatomy studies and microscopy, and in chemistry through experimentation and precise measurements. While the Catholic Church initially opposed challenges to its authority, it benefited from advances that enabled Renaissance art and architecture.
The Scientific Revolution involved a new way of thinking that challenged traditional views. Copernicus developed a heliocentric model of the solar system that placed the Sun, not Earth, at the center. Kepler later proved that planets orbit in ellipses, not circles. Galileo used a telescope to observe craters on the Moon, moons of Jupiter, and more. Newton later published Principia, explaining his law of universal gravitation. Discoveries were also made in biology through the work of Vesalius, Harvey, Hooke, and Leeuwenhoek. Advances in chemistry included Boyle's gas laws and Lavoisier's work on elements and conservation of mass. While the Church initially opposed challenges to its authority,
Introduction to mary shelley’s frankensteinjberneche
This document provides historical context for Mary Shelley's Frankenstein by discussing several key events that shaped her consciousness, including the Scientific Revolution which challenged religious doctrine, the Enlightenment idea that science could transform society, Rousseau's philosophy of living in accordance with nature, and the French Revolution's reaction against oppression. These intellectual movements established ideas of spontaneity and freedom over obedience, science over religion, and nature as something to worship that informed Shelley's creation of Frankenstein and its themes.
Intellectual revolutions that defined society_S&T in Building the Nation_Wee...LuisSalenga1
Copernican, Darwinian and Freudian intellectual revolutions transformed society's views of nature. Copernicus published his heliocentric model contradicting the geocentric Ptolemaic model, establishing the birth of modern astronomy. Darwin introduced the theory of evolution by natural selection, making populations evolve over generations. Freud developed the theory of psychoanalysis, establishing psychology as a science and explaining human behavior through unconscious conflicts.
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1. A new way of scientific thinking emerged during the Scientific Revolution which challenged traditional views and relied on experimentation and evidence.
2. Remarkable discoveries were made in astronomy, physics, and math including Copernicus' theory that the Earth revolves around the sun and Kepler's discovery that planets orbit in ellipses.
3. Major advances were also made in biology and chemistry through discoveries like the circulation of blood and invention of the microscope which allowed the observation of cells.
The Scientific Revolution began as natural philosophers in the 15th-16th centuries began to abandon ancient authorities like Aristotle and instead make their own observations. Developments like the printing press and new instruments helped spread ideas. Thinkers applied mathematics to understand nature, including Copernicus proposing a sun-centered universe, Kepler discovering elliptical orbits, and Galileo's telescopic discoveries supporting Copernicus. Isaac Newton then defined universal laws of motion and gravitation, dominating the worldview until Einstein. Anatomists like Vesalius and Harvey also improved on Galen's models, while philosophers like Descartes and Bacon emphasized reason and the scientific method.
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After Mao Zedong's death, Deng Xiaoping called for modernizing China's industry, agriculture, technology, and defense. China opened up to foreign investment and sent students abroad to study science and business. Despite economic growth, China did not achieve Deng's goal of political democracy, and the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests calling for reform were violently suppressed. Japan became a major exporter after World War II but experienced an economic downturn in the late 1980s and deflation since. The Korean peninsula remains divided between the authoritarian North Korea and growing South Korean democracy, with tensions continuing over North Korea's nuclear program.
Mikhail Gorbachev introduced political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union in the 1980s known as perestroika and glasnost. This loosening of control led Eastern European nations to overthrow their communist governments in 1989. Germany reunified in 1990 and the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Ethnic tensions also rose in Yugoslavia in the 1990s, leading to war as Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo declared independence from Serbia.
The document summarizes political developments in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe after World War II. It describes how Stalin rebuilt the Soviet industrial base through repressive policies, and how after his death Khrushchev denounced Stalin's regime and attempted reforms. However, foreign policy failures weakened Khrushchev, and he was replaced in 1964. Brezhnev emerged as leader and maintained Soviet control over Eastern Europe, intervening to crush reforms in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. The Soviet Union remained the dominant power in Eastern Europe throughout this period.
The Cold War brought the United States and Soviet Union close to nuclear war as they engaged in proxy wars around the world to prevent the spread of opposing ideologies. During this time, the Korean War broke out as North Korea invaded South Korea, leading to three years of fighting along the 38th parallel border. Later, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before as the U.S. blockaded Soviet ships carrying missiles to Cuba. Both crises confirmed American fears of communist expansion. In the 1960s, the U.S. became embroiled in the Vietnam War in an attempt to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, but despite military superiority, they failed to defeat North Vietnam
The Cold War began after WWII as tensions rose between the US and Soviet Union over the fate of Eastern Europe. The Soviets set up communist governments while the US enacted the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan to provide aid against communism. Berlin became divided and the Soviets blockaded West Berlin, leading to the Berlin Airlift. NATO and the Warsaw Pact formed opposing military alliances in Europe. An arms race developed as both sides raced to build nuclear weapons. The Berlin Wall was ultimately constructed in 1961 to stop the flow of East German refugees to the West.
The document summarizes the end of World War II in Europe and Asia. It describes the Allied invasions of Italy and Normandy in 1943-1944, their advance across Germany, and the Soviet push west. It discusses the Manhattan Project and the US decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, prompting Japan's surrender. The summary concludes that over 60 million people died overall in WWII and that the bombings marked the start of the Nuclear Age and Cold War between Western allies and the Soviet Union over the division of Europe.
The document summarizes the impact of World War II on civilian populations around the world. It describes how the Soviet Union, United States, Germany, Japan, and Britain all mobilized their societies and economies for total war. This led to shortages, social disruption, and the bombing of cities. Millions of civilians died from bombing campaigns, food shortages, and forced relocations. While the bombing did not destroy civilian morale, it did undermine the enemy's ability to sustain its war effort.
This document provides an overview of World War II on multiple fronts:
- Germany rapidly invaded Western Europe in 1940, defeating Poland, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium and France, while Britain evacuated its troops at Dunkirk.
- Germany bombed British cities beginning in 1940 but failed to break British morale. Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 but got bogged down by Russian winter.
- Japan attacked the U.S. at Pearl Harbor in 1941 and rapidly expanded its control of the Pacific but underestimated American resistance.
- By late 1942 the tide began to turn as the Allies defeated German forces in North Africa and the Soviets destroyed German armies at Stalingrad, establishing naval control in the Pacific at
Germany's path to war began with Hitler's belief that Germany needed more land and resources. He violated the Treaty of Versailles and remilitarized the Rhineland. Britain and France appeased Hitler by allowing the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland. After invading Czechoslovakia, Hitler was convinced the western allies would not fight. He then signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union to enable the invasion of Poland, bringing Britain and France into World War 2. Japan's path also began with its seizure of Manchuria in 1931 and occupation of parts of China against Chiang Kai-shek. Japan sought to establish dominance in East Asia but was dependent on U.S. trade. Facing sanctions
The document summarizes key events in 1917-1918 during World War 1 and the peace settlements that followed. In 1917, Allied offensives had been defeated while the US entered the war, boosting the Allies. Germany attacked France in 1918 but was stopped. With American troops arriving, the Allies advanced as Germany sought an armistice. In 1919, the Paris Peace Conference established the Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations over German objections to the treaty's harsh terms. The conference redrew borders in Europe and divided former Ottoman lands, laying seeds for future conflicts.
This document contains images and descriptions of various weapons and vehicles used during World War 1, including early tank prototypes from Britain, a French light tank, German machine gun teams, an American steam-powered tank, and a German submarine. It also features photos of a British soldier in a gas mask, French gas dispensers, and the famous German flying ace the Red Baron.
World War I began in 1914 with both sides expecting a quick victory but instead resulted in a bloody stalemate as the Western Front bogged down in trench warfare. By 1915, both sides had dug elaborate trench systems protected by barbed wire and machine guns. Planes were introduced to spot enemy positions and conduct aerial attacks. Neither side could gain a decisive advantage on land, so they sought new allies and opened new fronts, like the disastrous Gallipoli campaign. The U.S. entered the war in 1917 after German U-boats sank American ships. Total war mobilized entire populations and economies but took a heavy toll in casualties and civilian hardship.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist in 1914 provided the spark that ignited World War I. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war on July 28th. Russia mobilized its forces to support Serbia, causing Germany to declare war on Russia on August 1st. Germany then invaded Belgium as part of the Schlieffen Plan to defeat France quickly, causing Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4th due to Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality. This series of events and military mobilizations and alliances led Europe to descend into the massive conflict known as World War I.
After gaining power over India in the 18th century through the British East India Company, tensions rose between British rulers and Indian peoples. This led to the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny when Indian soldiers rebelled against new rifle equipment they found religiously objectionable. Though the rebellion was crushed within a year, it fueled Indian nationalism and prompted Britain to take direct control over India. Under the British Raj that followed, infrastructure improved but British economic policies negatively impacted local industries and many farmers. Meanwhile, educated Indian nationalists increasingly advocated for more self-governance and independence, led by figures like Mohandas Gandhi and his nonviolent resistance movement.
West Africa and North Africa were colonized in the late 19th century as Europeans sought raw materials and new markets. Britain, France, Germany, and other powers established colonies and protectorates across the regions. In Central and East Africa, explorers like Livingstone paved the way for further colonization by Belgium in the Congo under King Leopold II. By the early 20th century, all of Africa except Ethiopia and Liberia had been divided among European colonial powers, who established systems of direct or indirect rule that increasingly angered educated Africans seeking independence.
1. European colonial powers sought to directly control vast territories in Southeast Asia in the late 19th century for markets, raw materials, and national prestige.
2. Britain and France moved to establish colonial rule over most of Southeast Asia between 1819-1896, creating the colonies of British Malaya, Burma, and French Indochina.
3. Colonial powers governed through either indirect rule, allowing local rulers, or direct rule under Western officials, seeking to exploit resources and open new markets while preventing industrial development.
This document discusses the rise of modernism and uncertainty in the late 19th/early 20th century. It covers: (1) New artistic styles like symbolism, impressionism, and post-impressionism that rejected realism; (2) Challenges to the Newtonian view of the universe from discoveries in physics and Freudian psychology; (3) Growing extreme nationalism and anti-Semitism in Europe, exemplified by the Dreyfus affair in France and pogroms in Russia.
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1) Rapid urbanization as people migrated to cities for work, straining housing and sanitation. City governments created health boards to regulate improvements.
2) The social structure consisted of a small wealthy elite, a middle class of various professions, and a large working class making up 80% of the population.
3) The industrial revolution created new white-collar jobs for women as clerks and secretaries, and in government services. Most women still centered their lives around marriage and family.
4) Universal primary education was established to create better informed voters and instill patriotism, creating many jobs
The Second Industrial Revolution saw major technological advancements that transformed industry in the late 19th century. New processes like the Bessemer method revolutionized steel production. Electricity emerged as a valuable new energy source, powering inventions like lightbulbs and enabling round-the-clock factory production. The internal combustion engine provided new sources of transportation power. However, industrialization also led to difficult working conditions and low wages for many. Workers organized unions and socialist political parties to advocate for better treatment and an end to capitalism, with the goal of establishing a classless society as outlined by Karl Marx.
This document summarizes Romanticism, Realism, and the New Age of Science in the 19th century. Romanticism emphasized feelings and individualism in reaction to Enlightenment rationalism. Romantic artists and architects revived medieval styles. Realism rejected Romanticism in favor of depicting ordinary life realistically in novels and paintings. The Industrial Revolution and scientific discoveries like Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious faith and contributed to secularization.
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
2. Background to the Revolution
• During the Middle Ages, educated
Europeans took more interest in the
world around them.
• However, they still relied upon a
few ancient authorities, especially
Aristotle, for their scientific
knowledge.
3. • Changes in the 15th
and 16th
Centuries
led to the abandonment of old views
and the development of the new ones.
Renaissance humanists discovered
the works of Ptolemy, Archimedes,
and Plato and realized that many
ancient thinkers had disagreed with
Aristotle.
4. • Technical problems associated with the
changes taking place during this time
spurred a movement towards
observation and measurement.
–The inventions of new instruments
such as the telescope and
microscope made fresh observations
and discoveries possible.
5. – Mathematics also played an important role in
these new ideas. Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo,
Newton and others developed new theories
that became the foundation of the Scientific
Revolution.
– Because these thinkers believed the secrets of
nature were written in the language of
mathematics and discarded the old views, this
period is sometimes referred to as the Age of
Reason.
6. A Revolution in Astronomy
• Medieval philosophers had
constructed a geocentric
model of the universe called
the Ptolemaic system
because it was based on
the ideas of Ptolemy in the
second century A.D.
• The earth was at the center
and was motionless.
7.
8. • Copernicus
published “On the
Revolutions of the
Heavenly
Spheres” in which
he disagreed with
the Ptolemaic
Model.
9. • Copernicus called
his idea about the
universe the
heliocentric system.
• He believed that the
planets moved
around the sun and
that the earth was
not the center of the
universe.
10. • Johannes Kepler’s
observations confirmed
that Copernicus was
correct about the sun
being the center of the
universe by tracking the
elliptical orbits of the
planets (showing they
weren’t circular as
Copernicus had said).
11.
12. • Galileo, a
mathematician, was the
first European to make
regular observations of
the heavens using a
telescope. He showed
that the planets were
not pure orbs of light
but were made of
materials like the earth.
13. • Galileo published his discoveries in
“The Starry Messenger” in 1610.
• His ideas brought him under suspicion
by the Catholic Church which backed
the Ptolemaic model.
• He was ordered to abandon his ideas
about the universe because they
contradicted the Bible.
14.
15. • Despite the new
ideas of
Copernicus, Kepler,
and Galileo, it was
an Englishman
named Isaac
Newton who finally
tied everything
together.
16. • Newton, in his Principia, defined the
three laws of motion that govern the
planetary bodies, as well as objects
here on earth.
• In his universal law of gravitation, he
explained why the planetary bodies
travel in an elliptical pattern. Objects in
the universe are attracted to every other
object by a force called gravity.
17.
18. • Newton’s ideas showed the universe
as a well-regulated machine that
worked according to the laws of nature.
• Newton’s theory of the world
dominated until the 20th
Century when
Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity
created a new view of our universe.
19. Breakthroughs in Medicine
and Chemistry
• Medicine had changed very little until the 16th
Century.
• It had been dominated by the teachings of
the Greek physician, Galen (who lived in the
second century A.D.)
• Galen’s views were often wrong because he
used animals, not people, for his dissection.
20.
21. • The new anatomy of
the 16th
Century was
based on the work
of Andreas Vesalius
who used the
dissection of human
bodies for his
findings.
22.
23. • This allowed him to come up with a
more accurate view of the individual
organs and general structure of the
human body.
• However, he still followed Galen’s
incorrect idea that there were two kinds
of blood: one kind in the veins and
another kind in the arteries.
24. • William Harvey showed
that the heart, not the
liver, was the beginning
point for the circulation
of blood.
• He also proved that the
same blood flowed in
both the veins and
arteries. This meant that
the blood makes a
complete circuit as it
flows through the body.
25. • The new science of
chemistry arose in
the 17th
and 18th
Centuries.
• Robert Boyle was
one of the first to
scientifically conduct
controlled
experiments.
26. • He specifically studied the
properties of gases which led to the
development of Boyle’s Law.
• This states that the volume of a gas
varies with the pressure exerted on
it.
27. • Antoine Lavoisier
invented a system of
naming the chemical
elements ; much of
which is still used.
• He is considered the
founder of modern
chemistry.
28. Women and the Origins of Modern
Science
• Margaret Cavendish, in
her book “Observations
Upon Experimental
Philosophy,” criticized
the belief that humans,
through science, were
the masters of nature:
“man cannot have a
supreme and absolute
power.”
29. • Maria Winkelmann was an
astronomer who then
became an assistant to her
husband, Prussia’s main
astronomer.
• After his death, she was
denied a job as an assistant
astronomer at the Berlin
Academy, even though she
had the background and
had discovered a comet,
because of her gender.
Any kind of scholarship was
not considered the role or
duty of women.
30. Descartes and Reason
• Rene Descartes used
the doubt and confusion
of all of the new ideas
of this time to arrive at a
new philosophy.
• He decided to set aside
all that he had learned
up to this time and start
again.
31. • Descartes said he could rationally be
sure of only one thing – his own
existence.
• He asserted that he would accept only
those things his reason said were true.
• His first principle was “I think, therefore
I am.”
32. • Descartes’ second principle involved the
separation of mind and matter (and of mind and
body).
• He said this separation allowed scientists to view
matter as something dead that could be
investigated independently by reason.
• He is known as the father of modern rationalism
because his system is based on the idea that
reason is the chief source of knowledge.
33. The Scientific Method
• During the Scientific Revolution, people
were concerned about how they could
best understand the physical world.
• The result was the creation of the
scientific method – a systematic
procedure for collecting and analyzing
evidence.
34. • Francis Bacon, an
English philosopher,
was the person who
developed the scientific
method.
• He believed in using
inductive reasoning, or
making generalizations
from observations to
test hypotheses (going
from specific evidence
to general principles).
35. Medical Advances
• Edward Jenner
developed the first
vaccine for smallpox
using the scientific
method. Even though
there was some
resistance, it caught on
and significantly
reduced the deaths
from smallpox.
37. Path to the Enlightenment
• The Enlightenment was an 18th
Century philosophical movement of
intellectuals who were impressed
by the achievements of the
Scientific Revolution.
38. • They hoped to use the scientific
method to improve society.
• Common words used by the
Enlightenment thinkers were
reason, natural law, hope, and
progress.
39. • The Enlightenment was especially
influenced by the ideas of two 17th
Century Englishmen: Isaac
Newton and John Locke.
40. • Newton saw the
physical world and
everything in it as a
giant machine.
– He had discovered
natural laws that
governed the physical
world.
– Intellectuals believed
they could now discover
laws that governed
human society.
41. • John Locke, in his
“Essay Concerning
Human Understanding,”
argued that people
were born tabula rasa
or with blank minds.
• Everything they became
was due to the
surrounding world.
42. • He believed that if you changed the
environment and exposed people to the right
influences, they could be changed and a new
better society could be created. This
contradicted the view of an earlier
Enlightenment thinker, Thomas Hobbes.
Hobbes believed people needed a strong
government because they were not guided by
reason but by a ruthless struggle for self-
preservation. Without absolute power, there
would be no order in society.
43. • In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke had a
more optimistic view of human nature. He believed
people were basically reasonable and moral. They
had certain natural rights, or rights that belonged
to all humans from birth. These included life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. He argued
that people formed governments to protect these
rights. If a government fails to protect these rights,
the people have the right to overthrow that
government. Clearly he favored a limited
government over one with absolute power. These
ideas would later influence the American
Revolution.
44. • By using Newton’s methods,
intellectuals now believed they
could discover the natural laws that
all social institutions should follow
to produce an ideal society.
45. Philosophes and Their Ideas
• The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were
known as philosophes, meaning
philosophers.
• To them, the purpose of philosophy was to
change the world for the better.
• While most philosophes were French, the
English had provided the inspiration.
46. • The philosophes were writers,
professors, journalists, economists,
and, most of all, social reformers.
• Three French philosophes
dominated Enlightenment thought:
Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot.
47. • In his The Spirit of
the Laws,
Montesquieu tried to
use the scientific
method to find the
natural laws that
govern the social
and political
relationships of
human beings.
48. • Montesquieu identified three basic
kinds of governments:
–Republics: suitable for small states
(countries)
–Despotism: appropriate for large
states
–Monarchies: ideal for middle or
moderate-sized states
49. • In his study of England’s government,
Montesquieu identified three branches:
–The executive (or monarch) who
enforces the laws
–The legislative (or parliament) that
makes the laws
–The judicial (or courts) that interpret
the laws
51. • This type of government functioned
through separation of powers which
keeps one person or group from gaining
too much power through the use of
checks and balances.
• Montesquieu’s work influenced
American philosophes who then
influenced the drafting of the U.S.
Constitution.
52.
53. • Voltaire was especially
well-known for his
criticism of Christianity
and his strong belief in
religious toleration.
He battled corruption,
injustice, and
inequality, and
defended freedom of
speech.
54. • Voltaire believed in deism,
an 18th
Century religious
philosophy based on
reason and natural law
which built on Newton’s
idea of a world machine.
• In the Deists’ view, God
(the mechanic) created the
universe which ran like a
clock without His
interference on its own
natural laws.
55. • Voltaire’s outspoken criticism offended the French
government and the Catholic Church.
• He was imprisoned and forced into exile.
• His books were outlawed and even burned, but he
continued to defend the principle of freedom of
speech.
• His beliefs influenced several of our founding
fathers.
56. • Diderot was
most famous for
his
“Encyclopedia,”
of 28 volumes
which helped
spread the
ideas of the
Enlightenment.
57. • Many of Diderot’s articles attacked
religious superstition and supported
religious toleration.
• Other articles called for social,
legal, and political improvements
that could lead to a more tolerant
and humane society.
58. Toward a New Social Science
• The philosophes’ belief that there
are natural laws that govern human
society led to the development of
the social sciences of economics
and political science.
59. • The Physiocrats, a French group, were
interested in indentifying the natural economic
laws that governed human society.
–They believed that individuals should be
free to pursue their own economic self-
interest.
–Government should not impose regulations
on the economy.
60. • This doctrine became
known as laissez-faire
(“hands off” or “let the
people do what they
want”).
• The best statement of
laissez-faire was made
by Adam Smith in his
work, The Wealth of
Nations.
61. • Laissez-faire was a rejection of mercantilism which
required colonies to send everything back to England
instead of making a higher profit elsewhere. Since
mercantilism required government regulation of the
economy to achieve a favorable balance of trade for
a country, philosophes rejected that view.
• Smith believed the government should only have
three basic roles
– Protect society from invasion
– Defend from injustice
– Keep up public works (such as roads and canals)
62. The Later Enlightenment
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau was
the most famous philosophe
of this time.
• In his Discourse on the
Origins of the Inequality of
Mankind, he argued that
people had adopted laws and
government to protect their
property which had led to
their enslavement.
63. • In another work, The Social Contract, he
said an entire society agrees to be
governed by its general will (majority
rule). This would result in true liberty.
• Unlike many Enlightenment thinkers, he
believed that emotions, as well as
reason, were important to human
development. The two needed to be
balanced.
64. Rights of Women
• Mary Wollstonecraft is viewed as
the founder of the women’s
rights movement.
• She argued that the power of
man over woman was as bad as
that of monarchs.
• If reason was found in all
humans, women had reason and
were entitled to the same rights
as men.
65. Social World of the Enlightenment
• The common people, especially the
peasants, were mostly unaware of
the Enlightenment.
• The major appeal of the
Enlightenment was among the
upper classes.
66. • In the 18th
Century, publishing and reading
began to grow which helped spread the ideas
of the Enlightenment.
• Many books were now directed at the middle
classes.
• The development of newspapers and
magazines for the general public began in the
18th
Century.
67. • Enlightenment ideas
were also spread
through the salons;
elegant drawing
rooms of the
wealthy upper class
where guests
gathered to discuss
the ideas of the
philosophes.
68.
69. • In this salon, a
young Mozart is
playing the
harpsichord in the
middle of the room
as an opera singer
performs while
playing the guitar.
70. • The salons brought writers and artists
together with aristocrats, government
officials, and wealthy middle class
people.
• The women who hosted the salons were
in a position to sway political opinion
and influence literary and artistic tastes.
71. Religion in the Enlightenment
• Although many philosophes attacked
religion, in the 18th
Century most
Europeans were still Christians.
–Many wanted a deeper personal
devotion to God.
–Methodism was the most famous of
the new religious movements.
72. • John Wesley was
the founder of this
new movement
and his Methodist
societies helped
each other to do
good works.
73. • The Methodist
movement appealed
mostly to the lower
classes.
• Methodism proved that
the search for reason
had not eliminated the
need for spiritual
experience.