It is the period of enlightenment.

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Enlightenment and Revolution
“If I have seen farther than others, it is
because I was standing on the shoulders
of giants.”
- Isaac Newton
Americans on average eat 18 acres of
pizza every day.

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Main Idea
New ways of thinking led to remarkable
discoveries during the Scientific
Revolution.
The Scientific Revolution

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Some Middle Ages scholars sought answers about the natural world from
the church. In the mid-1500s, others began to think in new ways.
• Scholars relied on traditional
authorities for beliefs about
structure of universe
• Geocentric theory, Aristotle
– Earth center of universe
– Sun, moon, planets revolved
around sun
• Ideas upheld by church, accepted
authority for European intellectuals
The Old View
• Scholars began to challenge
traditional authorities, 1500s
• Scientific Revolution, new way
of thinking
• Posed theories, developed
procedures to test ideas
• Why open to new ideas?
– Exploration
– New lands, new people, new
animals
New Viewpoints
Dawn of Modern Science

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Dawn of Modern Science
Ancient scholars could provide no information about
new lands, people, animals
• Age of Exploration led scientists to study natural world
more closely
• Other things to be discovered, things unknown to
ancients
• Navigators needed more accurate instruments,
geographic knowledge
• Scientists examined natural world, found it did not
match ancient beliefs

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Enlightenment and Revolution
• Francis Bacon,
experimentation to gain
scientific knowledge
• Rene Descartes, reason key
• Believed everything should be
doubted until proved by reason
• Relied on math, logic
• Ideas of both continue to
influence modern scientific
methods
Scientific Method Scholars
• Scientific Method
• Identify problem
• Form hypothesis
• Perform experiments to test
hypothesis
• Record results
• Analyze results, form
conclusion
New Approach to Investigation
The Scientific Method

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Question:
What was the Scientific Revolution?
Answer(s): a new way of thinking about the
natural world that challenged traditional views and
instead relied upon experimentation

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Early scientists
• Made significant contributions in astronomy, physics and math
• Began to explain complexities of solar system, limits of physical world
• Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, among first
Copernicus’ theory
• Idea of earth orbiting sun was not completely new
• Copernicus developed detailed mathematical explanation of process
• Was first scientist to create complete model of solar system
Copernicus
• Found geocentric theory of movement of sun, moon, planets not accurate
• Concluded sun, not earth, near center of solar system
• Heliocentric theory, earth revolves around sun
Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math

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Weaknesses of theory
• Mathematical formulas did not predict positions of planets well
• Copernicus did not want to be ridiculed for weaknesses
• Died 1543 after work published, other scientists expanded on ideas
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
• Copernicus’ famous book not published until last year of his life
• Knew church would oppose work
• Work contradicted teachings of church

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Brahe, Danish Astronomer
• Wrote book proving bright object over Denmark sky was newly visible
star
• Called it supernova, distant exploding star suddenly visible on earth
• Book impressed Denmark’s King Frederick II
• Gave Brahe money to build two observatories
• Brahe used observatories -
developed system to explain
planetary movement
• Believed sun revolved around earth
• Other five known planets revolved
around sun
Observations
• Hired as Brahe’s assistant to form
mathematical theory from
measurements of planets
• Published result of measurements of
orbit of Mars after Brahe’s death
Kepler, German
Mathematician
Brahe and Kepler

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Kepler’s Solution
Kepler solved main problem of Copernican
theory
• Copernicus assumed planets orbited in circle
• Kepler found assumption untrue - proved planets
orbited in oval pattern, ellipse
• Wanted to prove Copernicus wrong, instead
proved heliocentric theory correct
• Kepler’s mathematical solar system model also
correct

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Enlightenment and Revolution
More support
• Italian scientist Galileo Galilei
• Built first telescope used for
astronomy
• Scanned heavens beginning in
1609
Change in science world
• Isaac Newton, English scientist
• Brought together astronomy,
physics, math
• Wondered about gravity
Starry Messenger
• Galileo described discoveries
• Craters on moon, sunspots
• Saturn, moons of Jupiter
• Milky Way made up of stars
Principia
• Book explained law of universal
gravitation
• Gravity affects objects on earth,
also in universe
• Keeps planets in orbit
Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Newton’s Findings
Newton developed calculus, new kind of math
• Used calculus to predict effects of gravity
• German philosopher Gottfried von Leibniz also
developed calculus at same time
• Each accused the other of plagiarism
• Historians believe it was simple case of
independent discovery

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Question:
How did Copernicus and Brahe differ in their
views of the universe?
Answer(s): Copernicus—all planets orbit the sun;
Brahe—sun orbits Earth, other planets orbit sun

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Just as astronomers moved away from the works of ancient Greeks, other
scientists used the scientific method to acquire new knowledge and make
great discoveries in the fields of Biology and Chemistry.
• European Middle Ages
doctors relied on
Greek, Galen
• Galen’s works
inaccurate
• Flemish doctor
Andreas Vesalius
became known for
work in anatomy
Biology
• Used bodies of
executed criminals for
dissection
• Hired artists to
produce accurate
drawings
• On the Workings of
the Human Body,
1543
Vesalius
• English physician,
early 1600s
• Observed, explained
workings of human
heart
• Described blood,
circulatory system
functions
William Harvey
Discoveries in Biology and Chemistry

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Robert Hooke
• English physician, inventor
• Used early microscope to describe appearance of plants at microscopic
level
• Credited with creating the term cell
Antony van Leeuwenhoek
• Dutch scientist, 1600s
• Used interest in developing magnifying lens to invent microscope
• First to describe appearance of bacteria, red blood cells, yeast, other
microorganisms

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• French chemist, 1700s
• Developed methods for precise
measurements
• Discovered law of Conservation of
Mass, proved matter could not be
created, destroyed
• Recognized, named oxygen,
introduced metric system,
invented first periodic table
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
• Father of modern chemistry
• First to define element
• The Sceptical Chemist, 1661,
described matter as cluster of tiny
particles (now called atoms)
• Changes in matter occurred when
clusters rearranged
• Boyle’s law - temperature,
volume, pressure affect gases
Robert Boyle
Chemistry

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Question:
What were the major contributions made in
biology and chemistry?
Answer(s): importance of anatomy and
dissection; function of blood and circulatory
system; invention of microscope; discovery of
certain laws of matter

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Enlightenment and Revolution
The church feared reason as an enemy of faith, but eventually began to
embrace some of the achievements of the Scientific Revolution.
As science assumed greater significance, the question of the role of the
Roman Catholic Church in a changing culture became important. While the
church opposed the views of many scientists, it benefited from new
discoveries that made Renaissance art and architecture possible.
• Church most powerful institution in
Europe, Middle Ages
• Primary resource for knowledge,
learning
• Cathedral schools, universities
trained people to run the church
Science and the Church
Science and Society
• Most scientists did not want to
challenge role of Christianity
• Church explained world through
inspiration, revealed truth
• Science explained world through
logical reasoning
Conflicts

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Renaissance
• Study of art, architecture not
separate from study of science
• Artists learned anatomy in order
to paint the body
Architecture
• Mathematics, physics crucial to
great architecture
• Also used in engineering
achievements of the time
Artists
• Experimented with chemistry of
paints, nature of light
• Used math to create compositions
of perfect balance
Science and religion
• Combined to produce great
artistic achievements of
Renaissance
• Most art, architecture dedicated to
glory of God
Science and Art

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Enlightenment and Revolution
Science and Community
Scientific Revolution established new way of
thinking about physical world
• Great advances made in astronomy, physics,
biology, chemistry
• Advances influenced developments in arts,
architecture
• Impact of Scientific Revolution soon would cause
philosophers, scholars to wonder if reason could
solve poverty, war, ignorance

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Enlightenment and Revolution