The Scientific Revolution, which is a modern term to describe the precursor to contemporary science, refers to a period of changing doctrinal beliefs and using a more scientific approach to find out logical truth. Factors such as the Renaissance, Reformation, weakening of the Roman Catholic Church, are some major factors which lead to the Scientific Revolution. Furthermore, this powerpoint will cover a series of "scientists" or philosophers who had the courage to change the mentality of Europe during the 1400s up until 1727.
The Scientific Revolution, which is a modern term to describe the precursor to contemporary science, refers to a period of changing doctrinal beliefs and using a more scientific approach to find out logical truth. Factors such as the Renaissance, Reformation, weakening of the Roman Catholic Church, are some major factors which lead to the Scientific Revolution. Furthermore, this powerpoint will cover a series of "scientists" or philosophers who had the courage to change the mentality of Europe during the 1400s up until 1727.
An overview of the Scientific Revolution to go with lesson plans on the subject at the History Teaching Institute at Ohio State University
http://hti.osu.edu/scientificrevolution/lesson_plans
Some notes for the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment. We will actually come back to this and cover the Enlightenment separately at a later time. For now, just concentrate on everything up to and including Newton.
An overview of the Scientific Revolution to go with lesson plans on the subject at the History Teaching Institute at Ohio State University
http://hti.osu.edu/scientificrevolution/lesson_plans
Some notes for the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment. We will actually come back to this and cover the Enlightenment separately at a later time. For now, just concentrate on everything up to and including Newton.
the topic is all about the intellectual revolution and how the earth evolves every century and how the ancient or the philosopher used the technology and science in the past, what is the science.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
2. I. The Aristotelian UniverseI. The Aristotelian Universe
Derived from Ptolemy,Derived from Ptolemy,
Aristotle, and PlatoAristotle, and Plato
Classical WritingsClassical Writings
“Christianized”“Christianized”
Components of MedievalComponents of Medieval
CosmologyCosmology
Medieval PhysicsMedieval Physics
Belief in “Matter” andBelief in “Matter” and
“Form”“Form”
Earth = Living, ProtectedEarth = Living, Protected
SphereSphere
4. A. Copernicus (1473-1543)A. Copernicus (1473-1543)
Aim to glorify GodAim to glorify God
Sun-centered universeSun-centered universe
Challenged circular orbitsChallenged circular orbits
Universe of staggeringUniverse of staggering
sizesize
Earth no different thanEarth no different than
any other planetany other planet
On the Revolutions of theOn the Revolutions of the
Heavenly SpheresHeavenly Spheres (1543)(1543)
5. B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Most sophisticatedMost sophisticated
observatory of his dayobservatory of his day
Arrogant noblemanArrogant nobleman
Remained anRemained an
AristotelianAristotelian
Discovered cometDiscovered comet
shooting right throughshooting right through
crystalline spherescrystalline spheres
6. C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Student of BraheStudent of Brahe
Planetary motionPlanetary motion
conforms toconforms to
mathematical formulamathematical formula
Elliptical orbitsElliptical orbits
Planets do not movePlanets do not move
at uniform speeds inat uniform speeds in
their orbitstheir orbits
7. D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Early practitioner of theEarly practitioner of the
experimental methodexperimental method
Mathematical formula forMathematical formula for
acceleration of fallingacceleration of falling
objectsobjects
Law of inertiaLaw of inertia
His discoveries using theHis discoveries using the
telescopetelescope
Challenges categories ofChallenges categories of
“form” and “matter”“form” and “matter”
End of his lifeEnd of his life
8. E. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)E. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Newton far from theNewton far from the
perfect rationalistperfect rationalist
A great synthesizerA great synthesizer
Blends inductive andBlends inductive and
deductive methodsdeductive methods
Argues for a universeArgues for a universe
governed by natural lawsgoverned by natural laws
Principia; MathematicalPrincipia; Mathematical
Principles of NaturalPrinciples of Natural
PhilosophyPhilosophy (1687)(1687)
9. F. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)F. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Father of theFather of the
Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution
The Inductive MethodThe Inductive Method
Emphasis onEmphasis on
practical, usefulpractical, useful
knowledgeknowledge
New attitude towardNew attitude toward
naturenature
10. G. Rene Descartes (1596-G. Rene Descartes (1596-
1650)1650)
Significance of DoubtSignificance of Doubt
The DeductiveThe Deductive
MethodMethod
Spatial relationshipsSpatial relationships
can be expressed incan be expressed in
mathematicalmathematical
formulasformulas
Father of “analyticalFather of “analytical
geometry”geometry”
11. III. Causes of the ScientificIII. Causes of the Scientific
RevolutionRevolution
Medieval Intellectual LifeMedieval Intellectual Life
and Medieval Universitiesand Medieval Universities
The Italian RenaissanceThe Italian Renaissance
Renewed emphasis onRenewed emphasis on
mathematicsmathematics
Renaissance system ofRenaissance system of
patronagepatronage
Navigational problems ofNavigational problems of
long sea voyageslong sea voyages
Better scientificBetter scientific
instrumentsinstruments
12. IV. Consequences of the ScientificIV. Consequences of the Scientific
RevolutionRevolution
Rise of the “ScientificRise of the “Scientific
Community”Community”
--Royal Society of London--Royal Society of London
(1662)(1662)
--Academy of Royal--Academy of Royal
Sciences (1666)Sciences (1666)
The modern scientificThe modern scientific
methodmethod
A universe orderedA universe ordered
according to natural lawsaccording to natural laws
13. IV. Consequences of the ScientificIV. Consequences of the Scientific
Revolution (cont)Revolution (cont)
Laws discovered byLaws discovered by
human reasonhuman reason
““De-Spiritualized” and de-De-Spiritualized” and de-
mystified the Universemystified the Universe
Mechanical View of theMechanical View of the
UniverseUniverse
Deistic View of GodDeistic View of God
--God as the cosmic--God as the cosmic
capitalistcapitalist
15. I. What was it?I. What was it?
Progressive, Rationalistic,Progressive, Rationalistic,
Humanistic worldviewHumanistic worldview
Emerged out of theEmerged out of the
Scientific Revolution andScientific Revolution and
culminated in the Frenchculminated in the French
RevolutionRevolution
Spokesmen = RisingSpokesmen = Rising
Middle ClassMiddle Class
Paris = Center ofParis = Center of
EnlightenmentEnlightenment
Optimism aboutOptimism about
mankind’s abilitiesmankind’s abilities
16. II. Key IdeasII. Key Ideas
Distrust of TraditionDistrust of Tradition
and Revealedand Revealed
ReligionReligion
Scientific methodScientific method
could be applied tocould be applied to
society as wellsociety as well
Society can get betterSociety can get better
as risks are takenas risks are taken
Man is naturally goodMan is naturally good
Good life is on earthGood life is on earth
17. III. An Attack on the OldIII. An Attack on the Old
RegimeRegime
18. A. The World of the Old RegimeA. The World of the Old Regime
Built on traditionBuilt on tradition
World of hierarchy,World of hierarchy,
privilege andprivilege and
inequalityinequality
Allied with the ChurchAllied with the Church
Challenged by theChallenged by the
reform impulse ofreform impulse of
supporters of thesupporters of the
EnlightenmentEnlightenment
19. B. Conflict with the CapitalisticB. Conflict with the Capitalistic
Middle ClassMiddle Class
Support for the MiddleSupport for the Middle
Class social order againstClass social order against
the traditional social orderthe traditional social order
Size and increasingSize and increasing
power of the Middle Classpower of the Middle Class
New notion of wealthNew notion of wealth
Tension and discordTension and discord
created by the Middlecreated by the Middle
ClassClass
20. C. Popularization of ScienceC. Popularization of Science
The popularity of scienceThe popularity of science
in the 17in the 17thth
and 18and 18thth
centuriescenturies
Conversations on theConversations on the
Plurality of the WorldsPlurality of the Worlds
(1686)—Bernard de(1686)—Bernard de
FontenelleFontenelle
The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution
promised thepromised the
comprehensibility of thecomprehensibility of the
workings of the universeworkings of the universe
21. D. A New World of UncertaintiesD. A New World of Uncertainties
The Idea of ProgressThe Idea of Progress
The anti-religiousThe anti-religious
implications of theimplications of the
EnlightenmentEnlightenment
The relativity of truth andThe relativity of truth and
moralitymorality
John Locke’s NewJohn Locke’s New
PsychologyPsychology
----Essay ConcerningEssay Concerning
Human UnderstandingHuman Understanding
(1690)(1690)
-- “Tabula Rasa”-- “Tabula Rasa”
22. IV. The PhilosophesIV. The Philosophes
1818thth
century Frenchcentury French
intellectualsintellectuals
Interest in addressing aInterest in addressing a
broad audiencebroad audience
Committed to reformCommitted to reform
Celebrated the scientificCelebrated the scientific
revolutionrevolution
The “Mystique of Newton”The “Mystique of Newton”
Science applied toScience applied to
societysociety
23. V. The Problem of CensorshipV. The Problem of Censorship
The attempt of the OldThe attempt of the Old
Regime to control newRegime to control new
thinkingthinking
Publishers and writersPublishers and writers
hounded by censorshounded by censors
Over 1000 booksellersOver 1000 booksellers
and authors imprisoned inand authors imprisoned in
the Bastille in the earlythe Bastille in the early
1700’s1700’s
Battling censorshipBattling censorship
24. VI. The Role of the SalonVI. The Role of the Salon
Protection andProtection and
encouragementencouragement
offered by Frenchoffered by French
aristocratic women inaristocratic women in
their private drawingtheir private drawing
roomsrooms
Feminine influence onFeminine influence on
the Enlightenmentthe Enlightenment
Madame GeoffrinMadame Geoffrin
25. VII. Diderot’sVII. Diderot’s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia
Ultimate strength of theUltimate strength of the
philosophes lay in theirphilosophes lay in their
numbers, dedication andnumbers, dedication and
organizationorganization
Written between 1751-Written between 1751-
17721772
Attempted to illustrate allAttempted to illustrate all
human knowledgehuman knowledge
Problems with publicationProblems with publication
Emphasis on practicalEmphasis on practical
sciencescience
26. VII. Diderot’sVII. Diderot’s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia (cont)(cont)
Desire to change theDesire to change the
“general way of thinking”“general way of thinking”
Greater knowledge leadsGreater knowledge leads
to human progressto human progress
Emphasized moderationEmphasized moderation
and toleranceand tolerance
Human nature can beHuman nature can be
moldedmolded
Inalienable rights and theInalienable rights and the
social contractsocial contract
Knowledge improvesKnowledge improves
goodnessgoodness
28. A. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-A. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-
1755)1755)
The Spirit of the LawsThe Spirit of the Laws
(1748)(1748)
Despotism could beDespotism could be
avoided if political poweravoided if political power
were divided and sharedwere divided and shared
by a diversity of classesby a diversity of classes
Power must check powerPower must check power
Admires BritishAdmires British
governmentgovernment
French parlements mustFrench parlements must
be defenders of libertybe defenders of liberty
Influence in the USInfluence in the US
29. B. Voltaire (1694-1778)B. Voltaire (1694-1778)
Enthusiasm forEnthusiasm for
English institutionsEnglish institutions
Reformer not aReformer not a
revolutionaryrevolutionary
Admirer of Louis XIVAdmirer of Louis XIV
Relationship withRelationship with
Frederick the GreatFrederick the Great
““Ecrasez l’infame”Ecrasez l’infame”
30. C. Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-C. Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-
1789)1789)
Deterministic view ofDeterministic view of
human beingshuman beings
Free will, God andFree will, God and
immortality of the soul areimmortality of the soul are
foolish mythsfoolish myths
His views dealt the unityHis views dealt the unity
of the Enlightenment aof the Enlightenment a
severe blowsevere blow
Other thinkers repelled byOther thinkers repelled by
this inflexible atheismthis inflexible atheism
31. D. David Hume (1711-1776)D. David Hume (1711-1776)
Human mind is nothingHuman mind is nothing
but a bundle ofbut a bundle of
impressionsimpressions
Reason cannot decipherReason cannot decipher
anything about the originsanything about the origins
of the universe or theof the universe or the
existence of Godexistence of God
Hume’s rationalisticHume’s rationalistic
inquiry results ininquiry results in
undermining theundermining the
Enlightenment confidenceEnlightenment confidence
in reason itselfin reason itself
32. E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-
1778)1778)
His lifeHis life
Turns his witheringTurns his withering
critique of the Oldcritique of the Old
Regime increasingly onRegime increasingly on
the Enlightenment itselfthe Enlightenment itself
Rather than liberation,Rather than liberation,
rationalism andrationalism and
civilization destroys thecivilization destroys the
individualindividual
Man by nature wasMan by nature was
solitary, good and freesolitary, good and free
33. E. Rousseau (cont)E. Rousseau (cont)
Civilization representsCivilization represents
decay, not progressdecay, not progress
EmileEmile—protect children—protect children
from too many booksfrom too many books
The Social ContractThe Social Contract
(1762) and the “General(1762) and the “General
Will”Will”
Civilized man is anCivilized man is an
alienated manalienated man
Transitional intellectualTransitional intellectual
figurefigure
34. F. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)F. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
One of few philosophesOne of few philosophes
to live to see the Frenchto live to see the French
RevolutionRevolution
Enlightenment was aEnlightenment was a
personal process—personal process—
release from immaturityrelease from immaturity
More optimistic thanMore optimistic than
RousseauRousseau
““Dare to Know”—Dare to Know”—
Enlightenment was an actEnlightenment was an act
of personal courageof personal courage
35. IX. Enlightened DespotismIX. Enlightened Despotism
The manner of politicalThe manner of political
reformreform
Frederick the Great ofFrederick the Great of
PrussiaPrussia
Catherine the Great ofCatherine the Great of
RussiaRussia
Joseph II of AustriaJoseph II of Austria
True reform or a cynical,True reform or a cynical,
manipulativemanipulative
consolidation of power?consolidation of power?