Respiration is the energy source to all living organism. Bacterial ETS system generates energy for bacteria in form of ATP using oxidative phosphorylation.
This document discusses the Pasteur effect, which is the inhibiting effect of oxygen on the fermentation process. It was discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1857 through his studies of yeast and butyric acid fermentation. Pasteur found that aerating fermenting fluids arrested the fermentation process, due to the presence of oxygen which yeast could only function without. The key difference between fermentation and respiration is that fermentation produces much less ATP than respiration, which fully oxidizes molecules through the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain. The Pasteur effect occurs because yeast switches from the low-energy fermentation pathway to the high-energy aerobic respiration pathway in the presence of oxygen.
This document discusses chemolithotrophs, which are organisms that obtain energy from oxidizing inorganic or organic compounds. It notes that chemolithotrophs, also called chemolithoautotrophs, were first studied by Sergei Winogradsky in sulfur bacteria. Chemolithotrophs face challenges due to the lower energy availability from oxidizing inorganic compounds compared to organics, and solutions include oxidizing more substrate and using reverse electron flow. The document categorizes chemolithotrophs as aerobic, using oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor, or anaerobic, using other compounds besides oxygen.
Photophosphorylation is the process by which ATP is created using energy from sunlight. It involves the creation of a proton gradient across a membrane via the electron transport chain, similar to respiration. However, since the proton gradient formation is light-dependent, it is called photophosphorylation. Proton movement across the membrane powers ATP synthase enzymes to join ADP and Pi to make ATP.
This PPt deals about bacterial photosynthesis, different types of photosynthetic bacteria, types of photosynthesis-OXygenic and anoxygenic , photosynthetic structures, photosynthetic pigments and also explain the light reactions and dark reactions.in dark reactions, in addition to Calvin cycle, bacteria has one more carbon dioxide fixation (Pyruvate reductase pathway)
This document discusses sulfur-oxidizing bacteria and their chemolithotrophic metabolism. It provides details on various sulfur-oxidizing bacteria such as Beggiatoa, Thiobacillus, Sulfolobus, and Thiomicrospira. It explains that these bacteria are able to use reduced inorganic sulfur compounds like hydrogen sulfide as electron donors to generate energy through electron transport phosphorylation. The oxidation of these compounds produces sulfuric acid. It also notes that while most sulfur oxidation is aerobic, some bacteria can perform this process anaerobically using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor.
This document discusses the Pasteur effect, which is the inhibiting effect of oxygen on the fermentation process. It was discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1857 through his studies of yeast and butyric acid fermentation. Pasteur found that aerating fermenting fluids arrested the fermentation process, due to the presence of oxygen which yeast could only function without. The key difference between fermentation and respiration is that fermentation produces much less ATP than respiration, which fully oxidizes molecules through the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain. The Pasteur effect occurs because yeast switches from the low-energy fermentation pathway to the high-energy aerobic respiration pathway in the presence of oxygen.
This document discusses chemolithotrophs, which are organisms that obtain energy from oxidizing inorganic or organic compounds. It notes that chemolithotrophs, also called chemolithoautotrophs, were first studied by Sergei Winogradsky in sulfur bacteria. Chemolithotrophs face challenges due to the lower energy availability from oxidizing inorganic compounds compared to organics, and solutions include oxidizing more substrate and using reverse electron flow. The document categorizes chemolithotrophs as aerobic, using oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor, or anaerobic, using other compounds besides oxygen.
Photophosphorylation is the process by which ATP is created using energy from sunlight. It involves the creation of a proton gradient across a membrane via the electron transport chain, similar to respiration. However, since the proton gradient formation is light-dependent, it is called photophosphorylation. Proton movement across the membrane powers ATP synthase enzymes to join ADP and Pi to make ATP.
This PPt deals about bacterial photosynthesis, different types of photosynthetic bacteria, types of photosynthesis-OXygenic and anoxygenic , photosynthetic structures, photosynthetic pigments and also explain the light reactions and dark reactions.in dark reactions, in addition to Calvin cycle, bacteria has one more carbon dioxide fixation (Pyruvate reductase pathway)
This document discusses sulfur-oxidizing bacteria and their chemolithotrophic metabolism. It provides details on various sulfur-oxidizing bacteria such as Beggiatoa, Thiobacillus, Sulfolobus, and Thiomicrospira. It explains that these bacteria are able to use reduced inorganic sulfur compounds like hydrogen sulfide as electron donors to generate energy through electron transport phosphorylation. The oxidation of these compounds produces sulfuric acid. It also notes that while most sulfur oxidation is aerobic, some bacteria can perform this process anaerobically using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor.
Cyanobacteria, algae, and plants perform oxygenic photosynthesis using chlorophyll. There are two photosystems - photosystem I and photosystem II - that work together in a Z-scheme to transfer electrons. Photosystem I absorbs longer wavelengths of light at 700nm via P700 chlorophyll while photosystem II absorbs shorter wavelengths at 680nm via P680 chlorophyll. Electrons are transferred between the photosystems through a series of electron carriers to generate ATP in cyclic or non-cyclic photophosphorylation, with the latter process also using photosystem II to split water and produce oxygen.
The document summarizes key steps in nitrate assimilation by plants. It discusses how plants reduce nitrate to nitrite and then to ammonium within cells. The ammonium is assimilated through the glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase pathway to produce glutamine and other organic nitrogen compounds. Biological nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria is also summarized, including the signaling and nodulation processes that allow nitrogen-fixing bacteria to interact with plant hosts.
Rolling circle replication is a process that can rapidly synthesize multiple copies of circular DNA or RNA molecules. It involves the unidirectional replication of circular nucleic acids. The process begins with an initiator protein nicking one strand of the circular DNA. DNA polymerase then uses the 3' end of the nicked strand to initiate replication, displacing the 5' end. Replication continues around the circle to produce a long concatemer of copies. The concatemer is then cleaved and ligated to form multiple double-stranded circular DNA molecules. Rolling circle replication is used by some viruses and plasmids to replicate their genomes and can be harnessed for applications like signal amplification in biosensing.
it is bypass cycle of citric acid cycle.
it give the brief description of glyoxylate cycle.
it is the summary of glyoxylate cycle for m.sc, bsc, science students.
it is very important topic for entrance exam of biology stream.
The document summarizes the stages of aerobic respiration in bacteria. It begins with glycolysis which produces pyruvic acid and ATP without oxygen. The Krebs cycle then converts pyruvate into carbon dioxide while producing more ATP and NADH. Finally, the electron transport chain uses the NADH to power ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis. Overall, the aerobic respiration of one glucose molecule yields 38 ATP.
This document discusses various types of anaerobic respiration. It describes how anaerobic respiration works using electron acceptors other than oxygen, such as nitrates, sulfates, or carbon dioxide. It then examines different forms of anaerobic respiration in more detail, including denitrification, sulfate reduction, and sulfur disproportionation. Key enzymes and pathways involved in nitrate reduction, sulfate reduction, and other processes are outlined.
A series of metabolic reactions by which many different organism utilise fats for the synthesis of carbohydrate
Another Process Involving Glycolytic Enzymes and Metabolites
Anabolic metabolic pathway occurring in plants, and several
microorganisms , fungi not animals.
Occurs in glyoxysome
The enzymes common to the TCA cycle and the glyoxysomes are isoenzymes, one specific to mitochondria and the other to glyoxysomes.
The glyoxylate cycle allows plants to use acetyl-CoA derived from β-oxidation of fatty acids for carbohydrate synthesis (use fats for the synthesis of carbohydrates).
The glyoxylate cycle is a cyclic pathway that result in conversion of 2 carbon fragment of Acetyl CoA TO 4 carbon compound succinate then succinate is covert to oxaloacetate and then glucose involving the reaction of gluconeogenesis
Mitochondrial and bacterial electron transport, oxidation reduction by Akshay...HNGU
The document summarizes mitochondrial and bacterial electron transport. It describes the key components of the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria, including four complexes and coenzyme Q that transfer electrons and pump protons. Bacterial ETCs can resemble mitochondria but vary in electron carriers and branches. They are usually shorter and less efficient than mitochondrial ETC. The ETC couples electron transfer with proton pumping to build a proton gradient and facilitate ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation.
The document discusses the fate of pyruvate in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In aerobic conditions, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA and enters the Krebs cycle to generate most ATP molecules. In anaerobic conditions, pyruvate undergoes fermentation into lactic acid or alcohol, generating no ATP. Lactic acid fermentation occurs in muscles and red blood cells to regenerate NAD+ for glycolysis. Ethanol fermentation is less common but important for producing items like wine and beer through microbial processes.
Continuous and batch culture are two methods for culturing microorganisms. Continuous culture aims to keep microbes growing indefinitely by continually supplying nutrients and removing waste through dilution. It is used industrially to harvest primary metabolites. Batch culture inoculates microbes in a fixed vessel volume, allowing growth until nutrients are depleted and conditions become unsuitable, after which secondary metabolites are often harvested. Both methods have advantages - continuous culture is higher productivity while batch culture is easier to set up and can induce secondary metabolite production.
1) Bioenergetics is the quantitative study of energy transduction and storage in living cells, along with the chemical processes underlying energy changes.
2) The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved, while the second law states that entropy increases over time as energy spreads out.
3) Living organisms are open systems that maintain internal order by taking in free energy from nutrients or sunlight and releasing entropy as heat to the environment.
This document discusses the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and the glyoxylate cycle. It defines the TCA cycle as a series of reactions that forms a key part of aerobic respiration. The cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs in 1937 and involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids. The glyoxylate cycle is a variation that occurs in plants, bacteria, and fungi and allows the conversion of acetyl-CoA into carbohydrates from acetate. It bypasses two decarboxylation steps in the TCA cycle using the enzymes isocitrate lyase and malate synthase. The document outlines the reactions and significance of both cycles
Photosynthesis has two phases: the light reaction and dark reaction. The light reaction uses photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll to convert solar energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. It occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. The dark reaction uses these products to fix carbon and produce sugars. The light reaction involves three steps: excitation of photosystems, production of ATP via electron transport, and reduction of NADP+ and photolysis of water. This is summarized by the Z-scheme which represents the electron flow and energy changes. Photophosphorylation uses the proton gradient generated by electron transport to synthesize ATP via chemiosmosis.
The document discusses different forms of DNA structure that can be adopted based on environmental conditions. The main forms discussed are B-DNA, A-DNA, Z-DNA, C-DNA, D-DNA and E-DNA. B-DNA is the most common form, having a right-handed double helix structure with 10 base pairs per turn. A-DNA and Z-DNA are also double helical but have different structural characteristics than B-DNA such as base pair spacing and groove size. The various forms arise in response to changes in humidity, ionic conditions and DNA sequence composition.
The document discusses three models of DNA replication:
1) Asymmetric replication - the leading and lagging strands are replicated differently due to the 5' to 3' directionality of DNA polymerase. The leading strand replicates continuously while the lagging strand replicates discontinuously in short Okazaki fragments.
2) D-loop model - replication in mitochondria where one strand is displaced to form a D-loop and replicates first before the other strand.
3) Rolling circle model - used by plasmids and viruses where one strand is nicked and displaced to be used as a template, forming multiple copies linked together in a concatemer.
Assimilation of ammonium ions is the ultimate aim of nitrogen metabolism in plants. this is the source of nitrogen for various organic compounds of structural and functional importance for the living world
Loss of electrons by an atom, ions or molecule during a chemical reaction & increase its oxidation state.
Gain of electrons by an atom , ion or molecule during a chemical reaction & decrease in its oxidation state
The reactions which involves both reduction process & complementary oxidation process called redox reaction.
The Entner-Doudoroff pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis found in some bacteria for converting glucose to pyruvate. In this pathway, 6-phosphogluconate is dehydrated to form 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate (KDPG), which is then cleaved by KDPG aldolase into pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. This pathway yields one ATP, one NADPH, and one NADH per glucose and is generally found in Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, and some other gram-negative bacteria, with Enterococcus faecalis being a rare gram-positive example.
1. The document discusses various microbial metabolic pathways including glycolysis, fermentation, respiration, photosynthesis, and chemolithotrophy.
2. It defines key concepts in metabolism such as catabolism, anabolism, reduction/oxidation reactions, and describes how ATP and cofactors are used to transfer energy between reactions.
3. Specific pathways are explained including glycolysis, fermentation which regenerates NAD+, aerobic/anaerobic respiration which fully oxidizes pyruvic acid, and photosynthesis which uses light to fix carbon and produce oxygen.
Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose, releasing energy. This occurs in mitochondria and produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic respiration. During intense exercise, the body shifts to anaerobic respiration which takes place in the cytoplasm when oxygen demand outstrips supply. It generates lactic acid and ATP more quickly but to a lesser extent. The human body repays this oxygen debt through deep breathing after exercise to oxidize lactic acid buildup.
This document summarizes a student presentation on bacterial metabolism. It was submitted to an assistant professor by 8 students. The presentation covers topics like anabolism, catabolism, metabolic versatility, enzymes, and energy production through aerobic and anaerobic processes. It also discusses fermentation, comparing aerobic and anaerobic processes. The summary provides an overview of the key metabolic concepts and processes covered in the student presentation.
Cyanobacteria, algae, and plants perform oxygenic photosynthesis using chlorophyll. There are two photosystems - photosystem I and photosystem II - that work together in a Z-scheme to transfer electrons. Photosystem I absorbs longer wavelengths of light at 700nm via P700 chlorophyll while photosystem II absorbs shorter wavelengths at 680nm via P680 chlorophyll. Electrons are transferred between the photosystems through a series of electron carriers to generate ATP in cyclic or non-cyclic photophosphorylation, with the latter process also using photosystem II to split water and produce oxygen.
The document summarizes key steps in nitrate assimilation by plants. It discusses how plants reduce nitrate to nitrite and then to ammonium within cells. The ammonium is assimilated through the glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase pathway to produce glutamine and other organic nitrogen compounds. Biological nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria is also summarized, including the signaling and nodulation processes that allow nitrogen-fixing bacteria to interact with plant hosts.
Rolling circle replication is a process that can rapidly synthesize multiple copies of circular DNA or RNA molecules. It involves the unidirectional replication of circular nucleic acids. The process begins with an initiator protein nicking one strand of the circular DNA. DNA polymerase then uses the 3' end of the nicked strand to initiate replication, displacing the 5' end. Replication continues around the circle to produce a long concatemer of copies. The concatemer is then cleaved and ligated to form multiple double-stranded circular DNA molecules. Rolling circle replication is used by some viruses and plasmids to replicate their genomes and can be harnessed for applications like signal amplification in biosensing.
it is bypass cycle of citric acid cycle.
it give the brief description of glyoxylate cycle.
it is the summary of glyoxylate cycle for m.sc, bsc, science students.
it is very important topic for entrance exam of biology stream.
The document summarizes the stages of aerobic respiration in bacteria. It begins with glycolysis which produces pyruvic acid and ATP without oxygen. The Krebs cycle then converts pyruvate into carbon dioxide while producing more ATP and NADH. Finally, the electron transport chain uses the NADH to power ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis. Overall, the aerobic respiration of one glucose molecule yields 38 ATP.
This document discusses various types of anaerobic respiration. It describes how anaerobic respiration works using electron acceptors other than oxygen, such as nitrates, sulfates, or carbon dioxide. It then examines different forms of anaerobic respiration in more detail, including denitrification, sulfate reduction, and sulfur disproportionation. Key enzymes and pathways involved in nitrate reduction, sulfate reduction, and other processes are outlined.
A series of metabolic reactions by which many different organism utilise fats for the synthesis of carbohydrate
Another Process Involving Glycolytic Enzymes and Metabolites
Anabolic metabolic pathway occurring in plants, and several
microorganisms , fungi not animals.
Occurs in glyoxysome
The enzymes common to the TCA cycle and the glyoxysomes are isoenzymes, one specific to mitochondria and the other to glyoxysomes.
The glyoxylate cycle allows plants to use acetyl-CoA derived from β-oxidation of fatty acids for carbohydrate synthesis (use fats for the synthesis of carbohydrates).
The glyoxylate cycle is a cyclic pathway that result in conversion of 2 carbon fragment of Acetyl CoA TO 4 carbon compound succinate then succinate is covert to oxaloacetate and then glucose involving the reaction of gluconeogenesis
Mitochondrial and bacterial electron transport, oxidation reduction by Akshay...HNGU
The document summarizes mitochondrial and bacterial electron transport. It describes the key components of the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria, including four complexes and coenzyme Q that transfer electrons and pump protons. Bacterial ETCs can resemble mitochondria but vary in electron carriers and branches. They are usually shorter and less efficient than mitochondrial ETC. The ETC couples electron transfer with proton pumping to build a proton gradient and facilitate ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation.
The document discusses the fate of pyruvate in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In aerobic conditions, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA and enters the Krebs cycle to generate most ATP molecules. In anaerobic conditions, pyruvate undergoes fermentation into lactic acid or alcohol, generating no ATP. Lactic acid fermentation occurs in muscles and red blood cells to regenerate NAD+ for glycolysis. Ethanol fermentation is less common but important for producing items like wine and beer through microbial processes.
Continuous and batch culture are two methods for culturing microorganisms. Continuous culture aims to keep microbes growing indefinitely by continually supplying nutrients and removing waste through dilution. It is used industrially to harvest primary metabolites. Batch culture inoculates microbes in a fixed vessel volume, allowing growth until nutrients are depleted and conditions become unsuitable, after which secondary metabolites are often harvested. Both methods have advantages - continuous culture is higher productivity while batch culture is easier to set up and can induce secondary metabolite production.
1) Bioenergetics is the quantitative study of energy transduction and storage in living cells, along with the chemical processes underlying energy changes.
2) The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved, while the second law states that entropy increases over time as energy spreads out.
3) Living organisms are open systems that maintain internal order by taking in free energy from nutrients or sunlight and releasing entropy as heat to the environment.
This document discusses the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and the glyoxylate cycle. It defines the TCA cycle as a series of reactions that forms a key part of aerobic respiration. The cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs in 1937 and involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids. The glyoxylate cycle is a variation that occurs in plants, bacteria, and fungi and allows the conversion of acetyl-CoA into carbohydrates from acetate. It bypasses two decarboxylation steps in the TCA cycle using the enzymes isocitrate lyase and malate synthase. The document outlines the reactions and significance of both cycles
Photosynthesis has two phases: the light reaction and dark reaction. The light reaction uses photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll to convert solar energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. It occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. The dark reaction uses these products to fix carbon and produce sugars. The light reaction involves three steps: excitation of photosystems, production of ATP via electron transport, and reduction of NADP+ and photolysis of water. This is summarized by the Z-scheme which represents the electron flow and energy changes. Photophosphorylation uses the proton gradient generated by electron transport to synthesize ATP via chemiosmosis.
The document discusses different forms of DNA structure that can be adopted based on environmental conditions. The main forms discussed are B-DNA, A-DNA, Z-DNA, C-DNA, D-DNA and E-DNA. B-DNA is the most common form, having a right-handed double helix structure with 10 base pairs per turn. A-DNA and Z-DNA are also double helical but have different structural characteristics than B-DNA such as base pair spacing and groove size. The various forms arise in response to changes in humidity, ionic conditions and DNA sequence composition.
The document discusses three models of DNA replication:
1) Asymmetric replication - the leading and lagging strands are replicated differently due to the 5' to 3' directionality of DNA polymerase. The leading strand replicates continuously while the lagging strand replicates discontinuously in short Okazaki fragments.
2) D-loop model - replication in mitochondria where one strand is displaced to form a D-loop and replicates first before the other strand.
3) Rolling circle model - used by plasmids and viruses where one strand is nicked and displaced to be used as a template, forming multiple copies linked together in a concatemer.
Assimilation of ammonium ions is the ultimate aim of nitrogen metabolism in plants. this is the source of nitrogen for various organic compounds of structural and functional importance for the living world
Loss of electrons by an atom, ions or molecule during a chemical reaction & increase its oxidation state.
Gain of electrons by an atom , ion or molecule during a chemical reaction & decrease in its oxidation state
The reactions which involves both reduction process & complementary oxidation process called redox reaction.
The Entner-Doudoroff pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis found in some bacteria for converting glucose to pyruvate. In this pathway, 6-phosphogluconate is dehydrated to form 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate (KDPG), which is then cleaved by KDPG aldolase into pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. This pathway yields one ATP, one NADPH, and one NADH per glucose and is generally found in Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, and some other gram-negative bacteria, with Enterococcus faecalis being a rare gram-positive example.
1. The document discusses various microbial metabolic pathways including glycolysis, fermentation, respiration, photosynthesis, and chemolithotrophy.
2. It defines key concepts in metabolism such as catabolism, anabolism, reduction/oxidation reactions, and describes how ATP and cofactors are used to transfer energy between reactions.
3. Specific pathways are explained including glycolysis, fermentation which regenerates NAD+, aerobic/anaerobic respiration which fully oxidizes pyruvic acid, and photosynthesis which uses light to fix carbon and produce oxygen.
Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose, releasing energy. This occurs in mitochondria and produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic respiration. During intense exercise, the body shifts to anaerobic respiration which takes place in the cytoplasm when oxygen demand outstrips supply. It generates lactic acid and ATP more quickly but to a lesser extent. The human body repays this oxygen debt through deep breathing after exercise to oxidize lactic acid buildup.
This document summarizes a student presentation on bacterial metabolism. It was submitted to an assistant professor by 8 students. The presentation covers topics like anabolism, catabolism, metabolic versatility, enzymes, and energy production through aerobic and anaerobic processes. It also discusses fermentation, comparing aerobic and anaerobic processes. The summary provides an overview of the key metabolic concepts and processes covered in the student presentation.
This document defines various descriptive terms used to categorize microorganisms based on their tolerance to different environmental conditions including solute concentration, pH, temperature, oxygen concentration, and pressure. It provides the definitions of terms like halophile, acidophile, thermophile, obligate aerobe, and barophilic and lists example microorganisms that fall under each category.
This document provides information about microbial metabolism and enzymes. It begins with learning outcomes about metabolism, enzymes, and metabolic pathways. It then defines metabolism as all chemical reactions in the cell, and defines anabolism as building reactions that require energy, and catabolism as energy-releasing breakdown reactions. Enzymes are described as catalysts with specific active sites that lower reaction activation energy. Regulation of enzymes through feedback inhibition or induction in response to substrates is covered. Electron carriers like NADH and FAD that facilitate energy transfer in redox reactions are also discussed. ATP is described as the main energy currency molecule in cells.
Aerobic respiration breaks down sugar with oxygen to produce energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Anaerobic respiration breaks down sugar without oxygen through fermentation, producing energy and lactic acid in muscles or ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast. During intense exercise, muscles initially use aerobic respiration but then rely more on anaerobic respiration due to decreased oxygen, leading to lactic acid buildup and fatigue.
For this assignment, we were instructed to create a powerpoint presentation of at least 12 slides that adequately covered an academic subject of our choice. All sources for media is cited in the work cited at the end of the presentation.
1. Respiration is the process by which living cells produce energy from food sources like glucose.
2. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to fully break down glucose into carbon dioxide and water, producing more energy. Anaerobic respiration breaks down glucose without oxygen, producing less energy.
3. In humans, muscles use anaerobic respiration during intense exercise when oxygen delivery is insufficient, producing lactic acid as a byproduct which must later be broken down.
Biological oxidation and oxidative phosphorylationNamrata Chhabra
The document discusses cellular respiration and the electron transport chain. It states that organisms extract energy through respiration from organic molecules. During respiration, electrons are released from oxidation reactions and shuttled by electron carriers like NAD+ to the electron transport chain, where the electron energy is converted to ATP. The electron transport chain consists of four complexes embedded in the mitochondrial inner membrane that sequentially transfer electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen to generate a proton gradient for ATP synthesis.
Cellular respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds in cells via enzyme-catalysis to form ATP, and can take place in the presence or absence of oxygen. The first step, glycolysis, involves breaking down glucose into pyruvate and a small amount of ATP in the cytoplasm without oxygen. Aerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is present, with pyruvate being broken down into carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria, producing a large yield of ATP. Anaerobic respiration takes place without oxygen, with pyruvate being converted to lactate in human cells or ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast cells.
This document discusses various types of microbial metabolism including respiration, fermentation, photosynthesis, and chemolithotrophy. It provides definitions and overviews of key concepts in microbial metabolism such as glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, electron transport chains, and ATP production. Specific pathways and electron donors/acceptors are described for aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, fermentation, oxygenic photosynthesis, anoxygenic photosynthesis, and chemolithotrophy.
Bacterial physiology by Dr. Shireen Rafiq (RMC)Hassan Ahmad
This document discusses various types of bacterial culture media. It describes how media provide nutrients to support bacterial growth outside their natural habitats. It defines culture as microorganisms cultivated in the lab and medium as a combination of ingredients that promote microbial growth. The document then discusses different types of media including aerobic, anaerobic, basic, enriched, selective, differential, transport and blood culture media; and provides examples of each.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of food (sugars). It occurs in two stages: (1) the light reactions where sunlight is absorbed and converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, and (2) the dark reactions where carbon dioxide is fixed using the ATP and NADPH to produce sugars like glucose. The overall equation is: 6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2. Photosynthesis provides a critical source of food for organisms and oxygen for respiration.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. It occurs in two phases: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions. The light reactions capture energy from sunlight and use it to make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses these products to incorporate carbon from carbon dioxide into organic compounds to fuel the plant. Some plants use alternative pathways like C4 or CAM photosynthesis that help reduce photorespiration and increase water use efficiency.
The document provides information about metabolism and various metabolic pathways. It defines metabolism, catabolism, and anabolism. It then describes the three main pathways of cellular respiration - glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport system. It explains the catabolism of glucose to pyruvic acid in glycolysis, the conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA and its entry into the Krebs cycle, and how ATP is generated in the electron transport system through oxidative phosphorylation. Finally, it summarizes how lipids and proteins are broken down into acetyl CoA and fed into the Krebs cycle.
The document provides an overview of key topics covered in SAT II Biology including:
- Characteristics of living things and the scientific method
- Chemistry of life including molecules like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids
- Cell structure and function including organelles, transport, and energy production
- Cell division, genetics, DNA structure and function, and inheritance patterns
- Evolution and classification of life including taxonomy and the tree of life
- Plant and animal form and function including human body systems
Bacterial physiology and genetics can be summarized as follows:
1. Bacterial physiology refers to the biochemical reactions that enable bacteria to live, grow and reproduce. Important factors for bacterial growth include nutrients, temperature, pH, and oxygen requirements.
2. Bacteria grow through a lag phase, log phase, stationary phase, and death phase. The log phase is when rapid, exponential growth occurs through binary fission.
3. Bacterial genetics involves the study of heredity and variation in bacteria. Genetic information is contained in bacterial chromosomes and plasmids, and can be transferred between bacteria through transformation, transduction, and conjugation.
Anaerobic respiration occurs when there is no oxygen present. There are two main ways cells deal with this: alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. During alcoholic fermentation, yeasts convert pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This regenerates NAD+ and allows glycolysis to continue without oxygen. Lactic acid fermentation occurs in animals where pyruvate is converted to lactate, also regenerating NAD+ to keep glycolysis ongoing when oxygen is absent.
This document summarizes key concepts about cellular metabolism from a chapter in a human anatomy and physiology textbook. It discusses the two main types of metabolic reactions - anabolism and catabolism. It then covers specific metabolic processes in more detail, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport system that produces ATP through cellular respiration. It explains how enzymes control metabolic reactions and how metabolic pathways are regulated.
Chapter 10 Respiration Lesson 1 - Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration and the E...j3di79
This document discusses respiration in living organisms. It defines respiration as the oxidation of food substances like glucose that releases energy in cells. There are two types of respiration: aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen and produces more energy, and anaerobic respiration during times of oxygen shortage. The document also describes internal respiration in the lungs and tissues, as well as external respiration through breathing.
The electron transport chain (ETC) transports electrons from electron donors like NADH to molecular oxygen. It consists of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Complexes I, III, and IV pump protons out of the matrix, building up an electrochemical gradient used for ATP synthesis. Electrons flow from complex to complex via mobile carriers like coenzyme Q and cytochrome c. This transfers energy from electrons to protons, conserving energy as ATP. Mitochondria contain many copies of the ETC to generate sufficient ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
ETC and Phosphorylation by Salman SaeedSalman Saeed
ETC and Phosphorylation lecture for Biology, Botany, Zoology, and Chemistry Students by Salman Saeed lecturer Botany University College of Management and Sciences Khanewal, Pakistan.
About Author: Salman Saeed
Qualification: M.SC (Botany), M. Phil (Biotechnology) from BZU Multan.
M. Ed & B. Ed from GCU Faisalabad, Pakistan.
The ETC is a collection of proteins bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane and organic molecules, which electrons pass through in a series of redox reactions, and release energy. The energy released forms a proton gradient, which is used in chemiosmosis to make a large amount of ATP by the protein ATP-synthase.
1) The document is an assignment submission on the electron transport chain from a student at PrimeAsia University.
2) It provides an overview of the electron transport chain as a series of protein complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane that pass electrons from NADH and FADH2 through redox reactions to generate a proton gradient.
3) This proton gradient is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through chemiosmosis, completing oxidative phosphorylation.
The document provides information on cellular respiration and how it generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. It discusses the electron transport chain, made up of protein complexes I-IV in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which establishes a proton gradient by pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This proton gradient drives ATP synthase to catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. The chemiosmotic theory explains how the potential energy in the proton gradient is used to produce ATP through rotation of the ATP synthase complex.
This document summarizes ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. It describes how electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts establish proton gradients across membranes, which are then used by ATP synthase complexes to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP. Specifically, it outlines how electrons from NADH/FADH2 or water power proton pumping via complex I-IV in mitochondria or photosystems I and II in chloroplasts. The resulting proton gradient drives ATP synthesis when protons flow back through the ATP synthase.
Biological oxidation involves the loss of electrons and/or hydrogen atoms from a substrate. This process is carried out by enzymes and can involve the loss of electrons, hydrogen atoms, or addition of oxygen atoms. Energy released from exergonic reactions is transferred through common intermediates to drive endergonic reactions. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is often used as an energy carrier in coupled reactions, transferring phosphate groups from energy-rich intermediates to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to form ATP. During metabolism, electrons from metabolic intermediates are transferred to electron carriers like NADH and FADH2 in the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons are passed
Biological oxidation involves the loss of electrons and/or hydrogen atoms from a molecule through enzymatic reactions. There are three classes of biological oxidation: loss of electrons, loss of hydrogen atoms, or addition of oxygen atoms. During electron transport chain reactions, electrons from energy-rich molecules are transferred through electron carriers like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. This releases free energy used to generate a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane and to synthesize ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. ATP acts as an energy currency by transferring phosphate groups from energy-rich intermediates to ADP.
The document is an assignment submission on the electron transport chain. It provides details on the electron transport chain, including that it is a series of protein complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane that sequentially transfers electrons, pumping protons out in the process. This generates a proton gradient that is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP via chemiosmosis, making oxidative phosphorylation the most efficient ATP producer in aerobic respiration. The assignment covers the components, steps, and purpose of the electron transport chain in detail over multiple pages.
Bioenergetics and electron transport chain 24mariagul6
1. The electron transport chain uses energy released from electron transfers to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient.
2. ATP synthase uses the potential energy in this proton gradient to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.
3. In this way, the chemiosmotic hypothesis explains how the flow of electrons along the electron transport chain is coupled to ATP production, even though the two processes are physically separate.
This document discusses metabolism and the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It defines metabolism as the series of changes that substances undergo in the body, including being broken down or used to synthesize tissue components. Metabolism involves both catabolic reactions that break down substances and anabolic reactions that build them up. The document then focuses on oxidative phosphorylation, explaining how electrons from nutrients are transferred through complexes in the electron transport chain to ultimately reduce oxygen to water. This process pumps protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis when protons flow back through ATP synthase.
The document summarizes the electron transport chain (ETC). The ETC is located in the mitochondria and is composed of a series of electron carriers that transfer electrons from donors like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. As electrons flow from carrier to carrier, their energy is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis. The ETC consists of four complexes that transfer electrons step-wise to oxygen with complexes I, III, and IV pumping protons. The chemiosmotic hypothesis proposes that this proton gradient powers ATP synthase to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Bioenergetics refers to cellular energy transformations where the chemical bond energy of fuels like glucose is transformed into ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. There are three main phases: 1) oxidation of fuels, 2) conversion of fuel oxidation energy into ATP's high-energy phosphate bonds, and 3) utilization of ATP's energy for cellular processes. The electron transport chain facilitates ATP production by transferring electrons from fuels like NADH and FADH2 through complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane to ultimately reduce oxygen to water. This releases free energy used by ATP synthase to produce ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate with a P:O ratio of 3:1 typically.
The electron transport chain is comprised of a series of enzymatic reactions within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which are cell organelles that release and store energy for all physiological needs.
As electrons are passed through the chain by a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, energy is released, creating a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, across the membrane. The proton gradient provides energy to make ATP, which is used in oxidative phosphorylation.
Inhibitors & uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation & ETCDipesh Tamrakar
The document provides an overview of oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain inhibitors and uncouplers. It discusses key concepts like the Q-cycle, shuttle systems that transport cytosolic NADH into mitochondria, uncoupling proteins, and various inhibitors that target different parts of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Specific inhibitors and uncouplers mentioned include rotenone, antimycin, oligomycin, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and chloro carbonyl cyanide phenyl hydrazone. Thyroid hormones are also noted to play a role in regulating uncoupling proteins and thermogenesis.
The document discusses the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria. It describes the ETC as a series of electron carriers embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfers electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. These carriers include nicotinamide nucleotides, flavoproteins, iron-sulfur proteins, coenzyme Q, and cytochromes. The passage of electrons through this chain is coupled to the pumping of protons across the membrane and generation of ATP by ATP synthase. The document also lists some inhibitors that block electron transport at specific sites in the chain such as rotenone, antimycin A, and cyanide.
Rai University provides high quality education for MSc, Law, Mechanical Engineering, BBA, MSc, Computer Science, Microbiology, Hospital Management, Health Management and IT Engineering.
The document discusses various types of retailers including specialty stores, department stores, supermarkets, convenience stores, and discount stores. It then covers marketing decisions for retailers related to target markets, product assortment, store services, pricing, promotion, and store location. The document also discusses wholesaling, including the functions of wholesalers, types of wholesalers, and marketing decisions faced by wholesalers.
This document discusses marketing channels and channel management. It defines marketing channels as sets of interdependent organizations that make a product available for use. Channels perform important functions like information gathering, stimulating purchases, negotiating prices, ordering, financing inventory, storage, and payment. Channel design considers customer expectations, objectives, constraints, alternatives that are evaluated. Channel management includes selecting, training, motivating, and evaluating channel members. Channels are dynamic and can involve vertical, horizontal, and multi-channel systems. Conflicts between channels must be managed to balance cooperation and competition.
The document discusses integrated marketing communication and its various elements. It defines integrated marketing communication as combining different communication modes like advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling, and direct marketing to provide a complete communication portfolio to audiences. It also discusses the communication process and how each element of the marketing mix communicates to customers. The document provides details on the key components of an integrated marketing communication mix and how it can be used to build brand equity.
Pricing is a key element in determining the profitability and success of a business. The price must be set correctly - if too high, demand may decrease and the product may be priced out of the market, but if too low, revenue may not cover costs. Pricing strategies should consider the product lifecycle stage, costs, competitors, and demand factors. Common pricing methods include penetration pricing for new products, market skimming for premium products, value pricing based on perceived worth, and cost-plus pricing which adds a markup to costs. Price affects demand through price elasticity, with elastic demand more sensitive to price changes.
The document discusses various aspects of branding such as definitions of a brand, brand positioning, brand name selection, brand sponsorship, brand development strategies like line extensions and brand extensions, challenges in branding, importance of packaging, labeling, and universal product codes. It provides examples of well-known brands and analyzes their branding strategies. The key points covered are creating emotional value for customers, building relationships and loyalty, using brands to project aspirational lifestyles and values to command premium prices.
This document outlines the key stages in the new product development (NPD) process. It begins with generating ideas for new products, which can come from internal or external sources. Ideas are then screened using criteria like market size and development costs. Successful concepts are developed and test marketed to customers. If testing goes well, the product proceeds to commercialization with a full market launch. The NPD process helps companies focus their resources on projects most likely to be rewarding and brings new products to market more quickly. It describes common challenges in NPD like defining specifications and managing resources and timelines, and how to overcome them through planning and cross-functional involvement.
A product is an item offered for sale that can be physical or virtual. It has a life cycle and may need to be adapted over time to remain relevant. A product needs to serve a purpose, function well, and be effectively communicated to users. It also requires a name to help it stand out.
A product hierarchy has multiple levels from core needs down to specific items. These include the need, product family, class, line, type, and item or stock keeping unit.
Products go through a life cycle with stages of development, introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. Marketing strategies must adapt to each stage such as heavy promotion and price changes in introduction and maturity.
This document discusses barriers between marketing researchers and managerial decision makers. It identifies three types of barriers: behavioral, process, and organizational. Specific behavioral barriers discussed include confirmatory bias, the difficulty balancing creativity and data, and the newcomer syndrome. Process barriers include unsuccessful problem definition and research rigidity. Organizational barriers include misuse of information asymmetries. The document also discusses ethical issues in marketing research such as deceptive practices, invasion of privacy, and breaches of confidentiality.
The document discusses best practices for organizing, writing, and presenting a marketing research report. It provides guidance on structuring the report with appropriate headings, formatting the introduction and conclusion/recommendation sections, effectively utilizing visuals like tables and graphs, and tips for an ethical and impactful oral presentation of the findings. The goal is to clearly communicate the research results and insights to the client to inform their decision-making.
This document discusses marketing research and its key steps and methods. Marketing research involves collecting, analyzing and communicating information to make informed marketing decisions. There are 5 key steps in marketing research: 1) define the problem, 2) collect data, 3) analyze and interpret data, 4) reach a conclusion, 5) implement the research. Common data collection methods include interviews, surveys, observations, and experiments. The data is then analyzed using statistical techniques like frequency, percentages, and means to interpret the findings and their implications for marketing decisions.
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii, dyeing & types of dyeing,Rai University
Dyeing is a method of imparting color to textiles by applying dyes. There are two major types of dyes - natural dyes extracted from plants/animals/minerals and synthetic dyes made in a laboratory. Dyes can be applied at different stages of textile production from fibers to yarns to fabrics to finished garments. Common dyeing methods include stock dyeing, yarn dyeing, piece dyeing, and garment dyeing. Proper dye and method selection are needed for good colorfastness.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02Rai University
The government requires public revenue to fund its political, social, and economic activities. There are three main sources of public revenue: tax revenue, non-tax revenue, and capital receipts. Tax revenue is collected through direct taxes like income tax, which are paid directly to the government, and indirect taxes like sales tax, where the burden can be shifted to other parties. Non-tax revenue sources include profits from public enterprises, railways, postal services, and the Reserve Bank of India. While taxes provide wide coverage and influence production, they can also reduce incentives to work and increase inequality.
Public expenditure has increasingly grown over time to fulfill three main roles: protecting society, protecting individuals, and funding public works. The growth can be attributed to several causes like increased income, welfare state ideology, effects of war, increased resources and ability to finance expenditures, inflation, and effects of democracy, socialism, and development. There are also canons that govern public spending like benefits, economy, and approval by authorities. The effects of public expenditure include impacts on consumption, production through efficiency, incentives and allocation, and distribution of resources.
Public finance involves the taxing and spending activities of government. It focuses on the microeconomic functions of government and examines taxes and spending. Government ideology can view the community or individual as most important. In the US, the federal government has more spending flexibility than states. Government spending has increased significantly as a percentage of GDP from 1929 to 2001. Major items of federal spending have shifted from defense to entitlements like Social Security and Medicare. Revenues mainly come from individual income taxes, payroll taxes, and corporate taxes at the federal level and property, sales, and income taxes at the state and local levels.
This document provides an overview of public finance. It defines public finance as the study of how governments raise money through taxes and spending, and how these activities affect the economy. It discusses why public finance is needed to provide public goods and services, redistribute wealth, and correct issues like pollution. The key aspects of public finance covered are government spending, revenue sources like income taxes, and how fiscal policy around spending and taxation can influence economic performance.
The document discusses the classical theory of inflation and how it relates to money supply. It states that inflation is defined as a rise in the overall price level in an economy. The quantity theory of money explains that inflation is primarily caused by increases in the money supply as controlled by the central bank. When the money supply grows faster than the amount of goods and services, it leads to too much money chasing too few goods and a rise in prices, or inflation. The document also notes that hyperinflation, which is a very high rate of inflation, can occur when governments print too much money to fund spending.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsRai University
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of national economies and the policies that governments use to affect economic performance. It discusses key issues macroeconomists address such as economic growth, business cycles, unemployment, inflation, international trade, and macroeconomic policies. It also outlines different macroeconomic theories including classical, Keynesian, and unified approaches.
Market structure identifies how a market is composed in terms of the number of firms, nature of products, degree of monopoly power, and barriers to entry. Markets range from perfect competition to pure monopoly based on imperfections. The level of competition affects consumer benefits and firm behavior. While models simplify reality, they provide benchmarks to analyze real world situations, where regulation may influence firm actions.
This document discusses the concept of perfect competition in economics. It defines perfect competition as a market with many small firms, identical products, free entry and exit of firms, and complete information. The document outlines the key features of perfect competition including: a large number of buyers and sellers, homogeneous products, no barriers to entry or exit, and profit maximization by firms. It also discusses the short run and long run equilibrium of a perfectly competitive firm, including cases where firms experience super normal profits, normal profits, or losses.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
2. • When pyruvate is oxidized to CO2, a far higher
yield of ATP is possible.
• Oxidation using O2 as the terminal electron
acceptor is called aerobic respiration;
oxidation using other acceptors under anoxic
conditions is called anaerobic respiration.
3. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Oxidation is the removal of electrons (e-) from an atom or molecule, a
reaction that often produces energy.
• An example of an oxidation in which molecule A loses an electron to
molecule B. Molecule A has undergone oxidation (meaning that it has lost
one or more electrons), whereas molecule B has undergone reduction
(meaning that it has gained one or more electrons).
• Oxidation and reduction reactions are always coupled; in other words,
each time one substance is oxidized, another is simultaneously reduced.
The pairing of these reactions is called oxidation-reduction or a redox
reaction.
1
4. The Generation of ATP
• Much of the energy released during oxidation-
reduction reactions is trapped within the cell
by the formation of ATP. Specifically, a
phosphate group, is added to ADP with the
input of energy to form ATP:
2
5. • The symbol ~ designates a "high-energy" bond-
that is, one that can readily be broken to release
usable energy.
• The high-energy bond that attaches the third P in
a sense contains the energy stored in this
reaction.
• When this P is removed, usable energy is
released. The addition of P to a chemical
compound is called phosphorylation.
• Organisms use three mechanisms of
phosphorylation to generate ATP from ADP.
6. Substrate-level Phosphorylation
• In substrate-level phosphorylation. ATP is
usually generated when a high-energy P is
directly transferred from a phosphorylated
compound (a substrate) to ADP.
• Generally, the P has acquired its energy during
an earlier reaction in which the substrate itself
was oxidized.
• The following example shows only the carbon
skeleton and the P of a typical substrate:
7. Oxidative Phosphorylation
• In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from
organic compounds to one group of electron carriers (usually to
NAD+ and FAD). Then, the electrons are passed through a series
of different electron carriers to molecules of oxygen (02) or other
oxidized inorganic and organic molecules.
• This process occurs in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes and
in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes.
• The sequence of electron carriers used in oxidative
phosphorylation is called an electron transport chain (system).
• The transfer of electrons from one electron carrier to the next
releases energy, some of which is used to generate ATP from
ADP through a process called chemiosmosis.
8. Cellular Respiration
• After glucose has been broken down to pyruvic
acid, the pyruvic acid can be channeled into the
next step Cellular respiration or simply
respiration;
• Defined as an ATP-generating process in which
molecules are oxidized and the final electron
acceptor is (almost always) an inorganic
molecule.
• An essential feature of respiration is the
operation of an electron transport chain.
9. Aerobic Respiration
• An electron transport chain (system) consists of
a sequence of carrier molecules that are capable
of oxidation and reduction.
• As electrons are passed through the chain, there
occurs a step vise release of energy, which is used
to drive the chemiosmotic generation of ATP.
• The final oxidation is irreversible.
• In prokaryotic cells, the electron transport chain
is contained in the plasma membrane.
10. Carrier molecules in ETS
• There are three classes of carrier molecules in electron transport
chains.
• The first are Flavoproteins.
• These proteins contain flavin, a coenzyme derived from riboflavin
(vitamin B2) and are capable of performing alternating oxidations
and reductions. One important flavin coenzyme is flavin
mononucleotide (FMN).
• The second class of carrier molecules are cytochromes, proteins
with an iron-containing group (heme) capable of existing alternately
as a reduced form (Fe+2) and an oxidized form (Fe+3).
• The cytochromes involved in electron transport chains include
cytochrome b (cyt b), cytochrome c1 (cyt c1), cytochrome c (cyt c) ,
cytochrome a (cyt a), and cytochrome a (cyt a3).
• The third class is known as ubiquinones, or coenzyme Q.
symbolized Q; these are small nonprotein carriers.
12. Steps involved
• The first step in the mitochondrial electron transport chain involves
the transfer of high-energy electrons from NADH to FMN, the first
carrier in the chain.
• This transfer actually involves the passage of a hydrogen atom with
two electrons to FMN, which then picks up an additional H+ from
the surrounding aqueous medium.
• As a result of the first transfer, NADH is oxidized to NAD+, and FMN
is reduced to FMNH2.
• In the second step in the electron transport chain, FMNH2 passes
2H+ to the other side of the mitochondrial membrane and passes
two electrons to Q.
• As a result, FMNH2 is oxidized to FMN. Q also picks up an additional
2H+ from the surrounding aqueous medium and releases it on the
other side of the membrane.
13. • The next part of the electron transport chain involves
the cytochromes.
• Electrons are passed successively from Q to
cytochrome b (cyt b), cytochrome c1 (cyt c1),
cytochrome c (cyt c) , cytochrome a (cyt a), and
cytochrome a (cyt a3).
• Each cytochrome in the chain is reduced as it picks up
electrons and is oxidized as it gives up electrons.
• The last cytochrome, cyt a3, passes its electrons to
molecular oxygen (02), which becomes negatively
charged and then picks up protons from the
surrounding medium to form H20.
14. • An important feature of the electron transport chain is the
presence of some carriers, such as FMN and Q, that accept
and release protons as well as electrons, and other carriers,
such as cytochromes, that transfer electrons only.
• Electron flow down the chain is accompanied at several
points by the active transport (pumping) of protons from
the matrix side of the inner mitochondrial membrane to
the opposite side of the membrane.
• The result is a buildup of protons on one side of the
membrane. Just as water behind a dam stores energy that
can be used to generate electricity, this build up of protons
provides energy for the generation of ATP by the
chemiosmotic mechanism.
16. The Chemiosmotic Mechanism of
ATP Generation
• The mechanism of ATP synthesis using the electron
transport chain is called chemiosmosis.
• Substances diffuse passively across membranes from areas
of high concentration to areas of low concentration; this
diffusion yields energy.
• And the movement of substances against such a
concentration gradient requires energy and that, in such an
active transport of molecules or ions across biological
membranes, the required energy is usually provided by ATP.
• In chemiosmosis, the energy released when a substance
moves along a gradient is used to synthesize ATP. The
"substance" in this case refers to protons.
17. The steps of chemiosmosis
1. As energetic electrons from NADH pass down the electron transport
chain, some of the carriers in the chain pump- actively transport-
protons across the membrane. Such carrier molecules are called proton
pumps.
2. The phospholipid membrane is normally impermeable to protons, so this
one-directional pumping establishes a proton gradient (a difference in
the concentrations of protons on the two sides of the membrane). In
addition to a concentration gradient, there is an electrical charge
gradient. The excess H+ on one side of the membrane makes that side
positively charged compared with the other side. The resulting
electrochemical gradient has potential energy, called the proton motive
force.
3. The protons on the side of the membrane with the higher proton
concentration can diffuse across the membrane only through special
protein channels that contain an enzyme called ATP synthase. When this
flow occurs, energy is released and is used by the enzyme to synthesize
ATP from ADP and Pi.
20. A summary of aerobic respiration
in prokaryotes. Glucose is broken
down completely to carbon dioxide
and water, and ATP is generated.
This process has three major phases:
glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the
electron transport chain. The
preparatory step is between
glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. The
key event in aerobic respiration is
that electrons are picked up from
intermediates of glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle by NAD+ or FAD and
are carried by NADH or FADH2 to the
electron transport chain. NADH is
also produced during the conversion
of pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA Most of
the ATP generated by aerobic
respiration is made by the
chemiosmotic mechanism during the
electron transport chain phase: this
is called oxidative phosphorylation.
7
21. inhibition of electron
transport chain
Electron transport inhibitors:
• Rotenone
• Antimycin
• Cyanide
• Malonate
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Oligomycin (inhibitor of oxidative
phosphorylation)
22. Compounds
Use
Effect on oxidative
phosphorylation
Cyanide
Carbon monoxide
Azide
Hydrogen sulfide
Poisons Inhibit the electron transport chain by
binding more strongly than oxygen to
the Fe–Cu center in cytochrome c
oxidase, preventing the reduction of
oxygen.
Oligomycin Antibiotic Inhibits ATP synthase by blocking the
flow of protons through the Fo
subunit.
CCCP
2,4-Dinitrophenol
Poisons This ionophore uncouples proton
pumping from ATP synthesis because
it carries protons across the inner
mitochondrial membrane
Rotenone Pesticide Prevents the transfer of electrons
from complex I to ubiquinone by
blocking the ubiquinone-binding site.
Malonate and oxaloacetate Poisons Competitive inhibitors of succinate
dehydrogenase
Antimycin A Piscicide Binds to the Qi site of cytochrome c
reductase, thereby inhibiting the
oxidation of ubiquinol.
23. heterotrophic and
chemolithotrophic bacteria
• Organisms able to use inorganic chemicals as
electron donors are called chemolithotrophs.
• Examples of relevant inorganic electron donors
include H2S, hydrogen gas (H2), Fe2+, and NH3.
• Chemolithotrophic metabolism is typically
aerobic and begins with the oxidation of the
inorganic electron donor.
• Electrons from the inorganic donor enter an
electron transport chain and a proton motive
force is formed inexactly the same way as for
chemoorganotrophs.
24. • However, one important distinction between chemolithotrophs and
chemoorganotrophs, besides their electron donors, is their source
of carbon for biosynthesis.
• Chemoorganotrophs use organic compounds (glucose, acetate, and
the like) as carbon sources. By contrast, chemolithotrophs use
carbon dioxide (CO2) as a carbon source and are therefore
autotrophs.
8
26. The Three Stages of Catabolism. A
general diagram of aerobic
catabolism in a
chemoorganoheterotroph showing
the three stages in this process
and the central position of the
tricarboxylic
acid cycle. Although there are
many different proteins,
polysaccharides, and lipids, they
are degraded through the
activity of a few common
metabolic pathways. The dashed
lines show the flow of electrons,
carried by NADH
and FADH2, to the electron
transport chain.
10
27. Anaerobic Respiration
• Electrons derived from sugars and other organic
molecules are usually donated either to endogenous
organic electron acceptors or to molecular O2 by way
of an electron transport chain.
• However, many bacteria have electron transport chains
that can operate with exogenous electron acceptors
other than O2. This energy-yielding process is called
anaerobic respiration.
• The major electron acceptors are nitrate, sulfate, and
CO2, but metals and a few organic molecules can also
be reduced.
28. • Some bacteria can use nitrate as the electron
acceptor at the end of their electron transport
chain and still produce ATP.
• Often this process is called dissimilatory
nitrate reduction.
• Nitrate may be reduced to nitrite by nitrate
reductase, which replaces cytochrome
oxidase.
29. • However, reduction of nitrate to nitrite is not a particularly
effective way of making ATP, because a large amount of
nitrate is required for growth.
• The nitrite formed is also quite toxic. Therefore nitrate often is
further reduced all the way to nitrogen gas, a process known
as denitrification. Each nitrate will then accept five electrons,
and the product will be nontoxic.
• There is considerable evidence that denitrification is a
multistep process with four enzymes participating: nitrate
reductase, nitrite reductase, nitric oxide reductase, and
nitrous oxide reductase.
30. • Interestingly, one of the intermediates is nitric oxide (NO). In mammals this
molecule acts as a neurotransmitter, helps regulate blood pressure, and is used by
macrophages to destroy bacteria and tumor cells.
• Two types of bacterial nitrite reductases catalyze the formation of NO in bacteria.
One contains cytochromes c and d1 (e.g., Paracoccus and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa), and the other is a copper protein (e.g., Alcaligenes).
• Nitrite reductase seems to be periplasmic in gram-negative bacteria.
• Nitric oxide reductase catalyzes the formation of nitrous oxide from NO and is a
membrane-bound cytochrome bc complex.
• A well studied example of denitrification is gram-negative soil bacterium
Paracoccus denitrificans, which reduces nitrate to N2 anaerobically.
• Its chain contains membrane-bound nitrate reductase and nitric oxide reductase,
whereas nitrite reductase and nitrous oxide reductase are periplasmic.
• The four enzymes use electrons from coenzyme Q and c-type cytochromes to
reduce nitrate and generate PMF.
31. • Denitrification is carried out by some members of
the genera Pseudomonas, Paracoccus, and
Bacillus. They use this route as an alternative to
normal aerobic respiration and may be
considered facultative anaerobes.
• If O2 is present, these bacteria use aerobic
respiration (the synthesis of nitrate reductase is
repressed by O2).
• Denitrification in anaerobic soil results in the loss
of soil nitrogen and adversely affects soil fertility.
32. • Two other major groups of bacteria employing
anaerobic respiration are obligate anaerobes.
• Those using CO2 or carbonate as a terminal
electron acceptor are called methanogens
because they reduce CO2 to methane.
• Sulfate also can act as the final acceptor in
bacteria such as Desulfovibrio. It is reduced to
sulfide (S2- or H2S), and eight electrons are
accepted.
33. • Anaerobic respiration is not as efficient in ATP
synthesis as aerobic respiration—that is, not as
much ATP is produced by oxidative
phosphorylation with nitrate, sulfate, or CO2 as
the terminal acceptors.
• Reduction in ATP yield arises from the fact that
these alternate electron acceptors have less
positive reduction potentials than O2.
• The reduction potential difference between a
donor like NADH and nitrate is smaller than the
difference between NADH and O2.
34. • Because energy yield is directly related to the
magnitude of the reduction potential difference,
less energy is available to make ATP in anaerobic
respiration.
• Nevertheless, anaerobic respiration is useful
because it is more efficient than fermentation
and allows ATP synthesis by electron transport
and oxidative phosphorylation in the absence of
O2.
• Anaerobic respiration is very prevalent in oxygen-
depleted soils and sediments.
35. • Often one will see a succession of microorganisms in an
environment when several electron acceptors are present.
• For example, if O2, nitrate, manganese ion, ferric ion,
sulfate, and CO2 are available in a particular environment, a
predictable sequence of oxidant use takes place when an
oxidizable substrate is available to the microbial population.
• Oxygen is employed as an electron acceptor first because it
inhibits nitrate use by microorganisms capable of
respiration with either O2 or nitrate.
• While O2 is available, sulfate reducers and methanogens
are inhibited because these groups are obligate anaerobes.
36. • Once the O2 and nitrate are exhausted, competition for use
of other oxidants begins.
• Manganese and iron will be used first, followed by
competition between sulfate reducers and methanogens.
• This competition is influenced by the greater energy yield
obtained with sulfate as an electron acceptor. The sulfate
reducer Desulfovibrio grows rapidly and uses the available
hydrogen at a faster rate than Methanobacterium.
• When the sulfate is exhausted, Desulfovibrio no longer
oxidizes hydrogen, and the hydrogen concentration rises.
• The methanogens finally dominate the habitat and reduce
CO2 to methane.
37. References
• Reading
• Brock biology of
microorgamism (13th
edition) by Madigan,
Martinko, Stahl, Clark
• Microbiology (10th
edition) by Tortora,
Funke and Case
• Microbiology (5th
edition) by Prescott
• Images
• 1-10: Microbiology (10th
edition) by Tortora,
Funke and Case