Brief description on Phylum Brachiopods with general terms used for Paleontology.
Structure paleoecology, geography, morphology.
And also easily understandable as since it discuss only specific terms only.
Microfossils are very small remains of organisms 0.001 mm (1 micron) to 1 mm, that require magnification for study.
They are abundant, can be recovered from small samples.
Provide the main evidence for organic evolution through the time
They classified into two groups:
Organic-walled; Acritarchs, Dinoflagellate, Spores and Pollen grains … etc.
Foraminifera Each chamber interconnected by an opening (foramen) or several openings (foramina).
Known from Early Cambrian through to recent times, and has reached its acme during the Cenozoic.
Have a wide environmental range from terrestrial to deep sea and from polar to the tropical region.
Depending on the species, the shell may be made of organic compounds, sand grains and other particles cemented together, or from crystalline calcite.
Inorganic walled; Diatoms, Silicoflagellates, Ostracods, Conodonts, and Foraminifera
Brief description on Phylum Brachiopods with general terms used for Paleontology.
Structure paleoecology, geography, morphology.
And also easily understandable as since it discuss only specific terms only.
Microfossils are very small remains of organisms 0.001 mm (1 micron) to 1 mm, that require magnification for study.
They are abundant, can be recovered from small samples.
Provide the main evidence for organic evolution through the time
They classified into two groups:
Organic-walled; Acritarchs, Dinoflagellate, Spores and Pollen grains … etc.
Foraminifera Each chamber interconnected by an opening (foramen) or several openings (foramina).
Known from Early Cambrian through to recent times, and has reached its acme during the Cenozoic.
Have a wide environmental range from terrestrial to deep sea and from polar to the tropical region.
Depending on the species, the shell may be made of organic compounds, sand grains and other particles cemented together, or from crystalline calcite.
Inorganic walled; Diatoms, Silicoflagellates, Ostracods, Conodonts, and Foraminifera
Graptolites is an important index fossil for Paleozoic rocks and common throughout the world. As in Pakistan the sequences from the Ordovician to carboniferous age missing but these strata are exist in Noshehra and Chitral, so thats why its more valuable as regional fossil of sub-continent.
Microscopic animal
Microscopic Algae
Bacteria
Microfossil of uncertain effinities
Microfossil elements of smaller animal
Microfossil fragments of larger organism
Ichnology,classification & significance of trace fossilUjjavalPatel16
Ichnology, classification & significance of trace fossil
Most trace fossils are largely facies dependant.
No secondary displacement or transport.
Trace fossils are common in rocks that otherwise are unfossiliferous. (siliciclastics, shorelines)
Non-preservation of the causative organism.
Multiple architects may produce a single structure.
The same individual can produce different structures corresponding to different behavior.
The same individual may produce different structures corresponding with identical behavior but in different substrates.
Identical structures may be produced by the activity of systematically different organisms where behavior is similar.
Abundance - one animal, especially if mobile, can make many traces during its lifetime, whereas it may or may not have its body preserved in the fossil record.
Graptolites is an important index fossil for Paleozoic rocks and common throughout the world. As in Pakistan the sequences from the Ordovician to carboniferous age missing but these strata are exist in Noshehra and Chitral, so thats why its more valuable as regional fossil of sub-continent.
Microscopic animal
Microscopic Algae
Bacteria
Microfossil of uncertain effinities
Microfossil elements of smaller animal
Microfossil fragments of larger organism
Ichnology,classification & significance of trace fossilUjjavalPatel16
Ichnology, classification & significance of trace fossil
Most trace fossils are largely facies dependant.
No secondary displacement or transport.
Trace fossils are common in rocks that otherwise are unfossiliferous. (siliciclastics, shorelines)
Non-preservation of the causative organism.
Multiple architects may produce a single structure.
The same individual can produce different structures corresponding to different behavior.
The same individual may produce different structures corresponding with identical behavior but in different substrates.
Identical structures may be produced by the activity of systematically different organisms where behavior is similar.
Abundance - one animal, especially if mobile, can make many traces during its lifetime, whereas it may or may not have its body preserved in the fossil record.
Understanding the Epidemology, parthenogenesis, control measures, life cycle, host parasite interactions of Fasciola hepatica :A comprehensive project report
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The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
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5. Mode of Life
Brach sessile and marine
Attached to seafloor by pedicle
at posterior
Inarticulate brachs live in tube
Adult brachiopods are filter
feeders
Filter food particles from water
Food passes from mouth to the
esophagus to stomach
Animals feeding on brachiopods
include starfish, crustaceans,
gastropods, and fish.
6. They have 2 VALVES
(shells) that totally enclose
the soft parts.
The average size is 20 - 70
mm but can range up to 370
mm.
The valves can open and are
hinged at one end; muscles
open and close the shell.
8. Morphology 2
They usually allow water into
the shell, as they are filter
feeders extracting food from
seawater.
The two valves are different
in size (as opposed to
bivalves).
However; they do show a
line of lateral symmetry
along the middle of the
organism.
9. Morphology 3:NaMiNg of the
valves
The smaller valve is the
BRACHIAL valve (upper in
life position).
The larger valve is the
PEDICLE valve (lower in life
position).
The animal secretes the
valves as it grows, the
original small shell is called
the UMBO and the shell
grows outwards from either
side of this point.
10. Morphology 4:
Often the pedicle valve has a
small circular opening
(FORAMEN) at the end
through which a type of foot
extends called the PEDICLE.
The pedicle allows the
brachiopod to attach itself to
the sea floor.
Inside the shell the body fills
much of the body cavity.
11. Morphology 5:
Some shells like rhynchonellids
have a wrinkly COMMISURE
with FOLDS (one on either side
of the sulcus) and a SULCUS
(in the middle).
Draw a rhynchonellid showing
the fold and sulcus and the
inhalent and exhalent currents.
Folds have inhalent and sulcus
has the exhalent.
The currents are therefore
separated.
The crenulated commissure also
provides a greater surface area.
12. The inside of the shell is the
MANTLE CAVITY and is mainly
the LOPHOPHORE, which is a
food gathering and water-filtering
device.
The important muscles are:
At the posterior end is the
pedicle “foot” type of
ligament/muscle which when
extended could usually reach
outside of the shell.
The main muscles were the
ADDUCTOR and DIDUCTOR
muscles, which were used to
close the shell.
13. Internal morphology 2:
Both sets of muscles
were attached to the
shell and although not
preserved in the fossils
there are scars left from
where the muscles were
attached to the shell.
The CARDINAL
PROCESS and HINGE
acts as a fulcrum on
which the muscles can
pull.
The diductor muscles
contract and pull down
the cardinal process and
open the shell.
14. Internal Morphology 3:
As the diductor muscles relax
the adductor muscles
contract and close the shell.
Role of the lophophore is to
act as a feeding device,
which collects suspended
particles.
Some brachiopods like
spiriferids have a spiral
calcite support called a
lophophore support or
spiralia.
15. Internal morphology 4:
On the diagram you can see
that the brachiopod has
TEETH (pedicle valve) and
SOCKETS (brachial valve).
16. Brachiopods are a long-lived
Phylum ranging from the
Cambrian to Present.
They were very common in
the Palaeozoic and slightly
less so in the Mesozoic but
still remain important.
In the Present not many
forms are left with
approximately 70 Genera.
Over 2500 fossil Genera are
known.
The largest were found in the
Cambrian (370 mm).
17.
18. CONCLUSION
Brachiopods are exclusively marine
Live in environments ranging from subtidal to the
abyss
Brachiopods swim only during larval stage
Widespread distribution reflects free-swimming
larval stage
Brachiopods occur throughout the world in both
cool and temperate waters (Japan, S. Australia, and
New Zealand).
Most brachiopods found in the neritic zone (waters
over the continental shelf), a few are found depths
of 5000 m
Most brachiopods range between 20 and 70 mm, some
are up to 370 mm.
