A comprehensive presentation on Blood Gas Analyzer and Blood Gas Analysis for self- learning undergraduate medical ,dental, ,pharmacology and biotechnology students . Laboratory determination of blood gas analysis –Micro method & technical errors involved are described.
Blood sample collection for blood gas analysis is illustrated.
Principle & Important components of Blood gas Analyzer are presented in lucid language.
Polari graphic method for PO₂ Measurement using pO₂ electrode is explained. Integral parts of pO₂ electrode ie platinum electrode, silver /silver chloride reference electrode & their working (reaction at electrode) is presented here.
Design of pCO2, & pH electrodes along with their working principles are elucidated for perusal of technologist.
Typical reference ranges in blood gas analysis are mentioned and are useful to classify acid base imbalance. Nomogram of acid base disorder is illustrated for clinical applications.
Laboratory determination of blood gas analysis along with its standardization is presented step wise. The Henderson’s Hassel Balch equation pursuing interrelation of TCO₂, Bicarbonate, Carbonic acid, PCO ₂, & p H is presented for manual calculation of certain parameters.
Google images are used for impact of subject on self-learners.
Blood Gas Analyzers. Blood gas analyzers are used to measure combinations of pH, blood gas (i.e. pCO2 and pO2), electrolytes, and metabolites parameters from whole blood samples. Blood conservation is an important initiative in every clinical diagnostic lab or critical care facility.
Blood Gas Analyzers. Blood gas analyzers are used to measure combinations of pH, blood gas (i.e. pCO2 and pO2), electrolytes, and metabolites parameters from whole blood samples. Blood conservation is an important initiative in every clinical diagnostic lab or critical care facility.
Introduction of Automation of the Analytical Process
Unit Operations
Specimen identification
Specimen preparation
Specimen delivery
Specimen loading and aspiration
Specimen processing
Sample induction and internal transport
Reagent handling and storage
Chemical reaction phase
Measurement approaches
Signal processing, data handling and process control
Applications of automation in clinical lab
Use of laboratory instruments and specimen processing equipment to perform clinical laboratory assays with only minimal involvement of technologist .
Automation in clinical laboratory is a process by which analytical instruments perform many tests with the least involvement of an analyst.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) define automation as "The replacement of human manipulative effort and facilities in the performance of a given process by mechanical and instrumental devices that are regulated by feedback of information so that an apparatus is self-monitoring or self adjusting”.
Introduction of Automation of the Analytical Process
Unit Operations
Specimen identification
Specimen preparation
Specimen delivery
Specimen loading and aspiration
Specimen processing
Sample induction and internal transport
Reagent handling and storage
Chemical reaction phase
Measurement approaches
Signal processing, data handling and process control
Applications of automation in clinical lab
Use of laboratory instruments and specimen processing equipment to perform clinical laboratory assays with only minimal involvement of technologist .
Automation in clinical laboratory is a process by which analytical instruments perform many tests with the least involvement of an analyst.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) define automation as "The replacement of human manipulative effort and facilities in the performance of a given process by mechanical and instrumental devices that are regulated by feedback of information so that an apparatus is self-monitoring or self adjusting”.
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A lucid presentation Nutritional management of clinical disorders to facilitate easy-learning for medical , dental , pharmacology and biotechnology students.
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A lucid presentation on Nutritional importance of vitamins and minerals for medical , dental , pharmacology and biotechnology students to facilitate easy-learning.
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A lucid presentation on Physical activity of the human body and Nutrition for medical ,dental ,pharmacology and biotechnology students for easy learning.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
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Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journey
Blood gas analyser & blood gas analysis with clinical significancee
1.
2. ASTRUP BLOOD GAS ANALYZER
Procedure
• Heparinized blood ( capillary /arterial )
• Wax sealing
• Remix before use
• Poor peripheral circulation –caution
• eg ABL /Roche blood gas analyzer
3. Laboratory determination of blood gas analysis –Micro method 1.
•Procedure :By using heparinized capillaries ,blood can be
collected from fingertips , a lobe of ear or a heel. After filing
with the blood capillaries are sealed by using modelling
wax. Immediately before use blood is remixed & by cutting
the sealed ends the blood is introduced into each
equilibration chamber of apparatus. After determining
blood pH & p CO₂ ,the bicarbonate & base deficit ( or
excess ) are determined by using a Nomograms.
4. Laboratory determination of blood gas analysis –Micro method 2.
•Although under ordinary conditions capillary blood is
similar to arterial , it can be assumed to so in patients with
poor peripheral circulations . For reliable results a good
flow of capillary blood is essential. If this cannot be
obtained arterial blood must be used.
•In hypothermia following corrections has to be made. The
measurements are made at 38 ⁰ C.
pH at T ⁰ C = p H at 38 ⁰ C+ 0.0146 ( 38 –T )
PCO₂ at T ⁰ C = Antilog ( log PCO₂ at 38 ⁰ C – 0.021 (38-T )
• Blood must not be exposed to air in any circumstances before its
analysis .
7. PRINCIPLE OF
BLOOD GAS ANALYSER
BLOOD GAS ANALYSER works with three in-built
electrodes
1. pco₂ electrode
2. pO ₂ electrode
3. pH sensitive glass electrode
8. pco₂ electrode
1. A. Glass electrode-sensitize to p H
B.silver /silver chloride reference
electrode
2.Bicarbonate Buffer
3. Plastic membrane selectivity permeable
to gaseous CO₂ but not dissolved ions
4.pH α p CO₂, inverse relationship between
p H & log p CO₂
pO₂ Measurement
1.Polari graphic method
A. platinum electrode
B.silver /silver chloride
reference electrode
2.NaCl / phosphate buffer
3. Membrane permeable to
gaseous O₂
4.A .O₂ + H₂O +4 e⁻ 4 OH⁻
B. 4 Ag + 4 Cl⁻ 4AgCl +4 e⁻
9. Important components of Blood gas Analyzer -1.
pH sensitive glass electrode
Reference electrode ( silver –silver chloride ) immersed in bicarbonate buffer
• Principle :The pCO₂ Electrode : Test solution –Arterial blood separated by plastic membrane
permeable to gaseous CO₂ but not permeable to dissolved ions .
• CO ₂ of blood diffuses through plastic membrane & react with the buffer system to change
pH.
• The pCO ₂ electrode takes advantage of linear correlation between p H & log PCO₂ over the
range 11-90 mm Hg .
• The hydrogen ion concentration change due to the dissolution of CO₂ is detected by the pH
sensitive glass electrode .
• A potential difference exist between glass electrode & Reference electrode This is measured
on the meter. The meter’s scale is usually calibrated for in semi logarithmic fashion, since pH
is inversely proportional to the log of pCO ₂.
10. Important components of Blood gas Analyzer 2
Principle : pO ₂ electrode –Polarographic method
Reference platinum & ( silver –silver chloride ) electrode is immersed in a buffer containing ( phosphate &
sodium chloride ) .These electrodes are separated from test solution.
• Test solution –Arterial blood separated by plastic membrane permeable to gaseous O₂ but not permeable to
dissolved ions .
• O₂ of blood diffuses through plastic membrane & react with the buffer Following reactions take place –
• At platinum electrode ( cathode ) electro reaction occurs .
O₂ + 2H ₂ O+ 4 e⁻ 4 OH ⁻
• The electrons necessary for electro reduction are produced at reference electrode (anode ) as follows-
4 Ag⁺ + 4 Cl ⁻ 4 AgCl + 4 e⁻
• A potential difference exist between glass electrode & Reference electrode This is measured on the meter.
The meter’s scale is usually calibrated for in semi logarithmic fashion. The current through the system is
directly proportional to PO ₂ & can be recorded directly after amplification into PO ₂.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20. pH electrode
Principle of p H electrode :
The measurement of pH is called potentiometric analysis. It has been
reported that a difference in electrical potential could be measured between
two solutions of different pH separated by a thin glass membrane. The
potential thus produced varies with the hydrogen ion concentration of two
solutions .The glass membrane is sensitive for H ⁺ions. It is on this principle
that the glass electrode is constructed for pH measurement.
22. Combined pH electrode
Integral Parts of combined p H electrode :
1. A simple glass electrode:
Modern glass electrodes are constructed from glass containing Lithium oxide
which is soft ,hygroscopic imparting low resistance. The inner surface of glass
membrane is in contact with a buffer pH. Into this buffer dips a silver /silver
chloride electrode ,the internal glass electrode .The glass electrode functions
like semi permeable membrane selectively permeable only to H⁺ ions.
2.Calomel reference electrode : consist of Mercury (Hg ⁺²) in contact with a
solution of potassium chloride saturated with Calomel (HgCl ).It is
surrounded by a outer vessel holding saturated Potassium chloride which
acts as a salt bridge between reference and test solution. This electrode is
not sensitive to pH .
23. Combined pH electrode
Only when glass electrode is coupled with a Calomel reference electrode the
potentiometric measurements are possible. The potential difference ( or
electrical voltage ) between two electrodes depends upon the hydrogen ion
concentration of test or standard solution .
It is the logarithmic response measured in millivolts on which pH meter is
calibrated in both millivolts and pH.
pH measurements vary with temperature and all measurements should be
made at a temperature of 25° C . With increasing temperature there will be fall
in of pH. It is therefore important to record the temperature of liquid before
measuring pH by adjusting dial on p H meter and then record p H .
Some pH meters have facilities whereby a temperature thermometer can be
incorporated into circuit and variation above and below 25 °C are automatically
corrected by pH meter itself.
24.
25.
26.
27. Combined pH electrode
Scehatic representation of combined electrode
Ag /AgCl /HCl/glass membrane Test solution KCl/HgCl/Hg
Glass electrode Reference electrode
is the boundary between the two immiscible solutions.
34. Single blood sample is in contact
With pCO2, pO₂ & pH electrodes
for their Simultaneous
measurement .
35. Typical reference ranges in blood gas analysis-1
Parameter Normal range
p H 7.35 -7.45
H⁺ ions ( 35-45mmol/ lt )
Arterial pO₂ 95- 100 mm of Hg
Arterial pCO₂ 4.7 -6.0 Kpa ( 1.02 -1.35 mmol/ lt or 35-45 mm Hg )
Total CO₂ 25-39 mmol /lt
Carbon dioxide combining power 53-75 ml per 100ml of plasma
HCO₃⁻ 21- 28 mmol /lt ( mequ/lt )
Base excess of blood 2.3 to + 2.3 mequ /lt
T O₂ Sum of O₂ dissolved in plasma & chemically bound
to Hb
H₂ O + CO ₂ ↔ H₂CO₃ ↔ H⁺ + HCO₃ ⁻ uncompensated phase – CONC CO₂ ↑ pCO₂ ↑, Total CO₂ ↑(RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS )
36. Typical reference ranges in blood gas analysis-2
Parameter Normal range Acidosis Alkalosis
p H 7.35 -7.45 < 7.35 > 7.45
H⁺ ions ( 35-45mmol/ lt ) > 45 mmol/ lt < 35 mmol/ lt
Arterial pO₂* 95- 100 mm of Hg
9.3-13.3 kPa
Arterial pCO₂ ◊ 4.7 -6.0 Kpa ( 1.02 -
1.35 mmol/lt at 35-45
mm Hg )
High ( respiratory
acidosis –under
ventilation )
uncompensated phase
low ( respiratory
alkalosis –Hyper/over
ventilation )-
uncompensated phase
T O₂ Sum of O₂ dissolved in
plasma & chemically
bound to Hb
H₂ O + CO ₂ ↔ H₂CO₃ ↔ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻
* PO ₂ Low =Hypoxemic,< 60 mm Hg- supplemental O ₂ needed ,< 26 mm Hg-Risk of death requires immediate O ₂
supplementation
37. Typical reference ranges in blood gas analysis-3
Parameter Normal range Acidosis Alkalosis
Total CO₂ ( HCO₃⁻ +
PCO₂)
Conc HCO₃⁻ : m M
PCO₂ :Kpa
25-30 mmol /lt (
Total CO₂= (HCO₃⁻ )
+α PCO₂) α =
0.0226mmol /Kpa
mM /Kpa
Carbon dioxide
combining power
53-75 ml per 100ml
of plasma
HCO₃⁻ 21- 28 mmol /lt
( mequ/lt )
Low( metabolic
acidosis )
High ( metabolic
alkalosis )-kidney
function normal
compensating for
respiratory issues
Base excess of blood 2.3 to + 2.3 mEq /lt
38. Typical reference ranges in blood gas analysis-3
• ◊ Arterial pCO₂ ◊- can become abnormal when respiratory system is working to
compensate for metabolic issue so as to normalize the blood p H & elevated
pCO₂ level is desired in some disorders associated with respiratory failure ,this
is known as ‘Permissive hyper apnea ’. (↑ CO₂ )
• HCO₃⁻ : levels can become abnormal when kidneys are working to compensate
for respiratory issues so as to normalize blood pH.
39. Laboratory determination of blood gas analysis
(1) The pH of blood : heparinized whole arterial blood ( or heparinized capillary
blood ) is used. The pH determination is performed immediately after collection of
blood .The blood can be stored at 0-4 ⁰ C up to 2-3 hrs,without significant change in
pH .
(2) PCO₂ : ( The respiratory parameter ) plasma carbonic acid can not to be found
directly .But it is determined by measuring PCO₂ . The PCO₂ of arterial blood is
usually directly proportional to the amount of carbon dioxide which is being
produced in the body & inversely proportional to the rate of alveolar ventilation in
the lungs .
(3) TCO₂ : Total CO₂ is mainly bicarbonate & also includes dissolved carbon dioxide.
Measurement of CO₂ ,carbonic acid & bicarbonate of plasma derived from blood
plasma ,collected under liquid paraffin gives measure of CO₂ content . It is reported
as CO₂ per 100ml at standard conditions of temperature & pressure . If the plasma is
equilibrated with normal alveolar air ( 40 mm Hg ) before it is measured ,the CO₂
combining power is obtained.Ordinarily the CO₂ content & CO₂ combining power
are practically identical.
40. Laboratory determination of blood gas analysis
(4)The plasma bicarbonate : ( non respiratory parameter )can be determined
by finding out the actual bicarbonate concentration of plasma separated from
blood taken anaerobically & expressed as mill equivalents per liter .This can be
calculated from the p H & PCO₂ by using the Henderson's –Hassel Balch
equation or from total carbon dioxide & the PCO₂ .
(5) Standard bicarbonate : is expressed as milliequivalents per liter, is the
concentration of bicarbonate in plasma separated from whole blood taken
anaerobically which has ben equilibrated at 37⁰ C a PCO₂ of 40 mm Hg with
oxygen to give full saturation to the hemoglobin.The plasma concentration
bicarbonate is influenced by change in PCO₂ & degree of oxygen saturation .
Alkali reserve is plasma bicarbonate . It is this fraction of plasma which is
used to neutralize all the acidic compounds entering the blood & tissue.
Plasma bicarbonate can also be calculated ( in terms of mequ /lt ) by
dividing CO₂ combing power by 2.24.
41. Laboratory determination of blood gas analysis
(5)PO₂ : determination is carried out to assess the oxygen carrying capacity of
blood hemoglobin . The increased oxygen affinity of hemoglobin is indicated
by elevated PO₂ values. The measurement of arterial PO₂ is also used in
conjunction with that of PCO₂ in assessment of respiratory disorders .A low
PO₂ is a measure of anoxia. It may also occur with a high PCO₂ when there is
alveolar hypo ventilation due depression or obstruction of respiration . A low
PO₂ with low PCO₂ may also be observed in pulmonary edema .
( 6 ) Base excess : is the amount of acid required to titrate blood to p H 7.4 at
37⁰ C & PCO₂ at 40 mm Hg . Base deficit is the reverse concept.
47. BLOOD GAS ANALYSIS
The interrelation of TCO₂ , Bicarbonate , Carbonic acid , PCO ₂, & p H in the
Henderson’s Hassel Balch equation :
p H = p ka + log (congugate base= HCO₃⁻)
(non ionized acid = H₂CO₃)
At 38⁰ C p ka = 6.1 therefore pH=6.1 + log (HCO ₃⁻ )/ H₂CO₃
H₂CO₃ ( mequ /lt ) =(0.0301 X pCO ₂)
pCO ₂= partial pressure of CO ₂ in mmHg equilibrated with plasma at 38⁰ C.
For normal plasma at 38⁰ C at pCO ₂ of 40mm Hg
H₂CO₃ = 0.0301 X 40 (pCO ₂)
H₂CO₃ = 1.204 mequ /lt
p H of plasma at 38⁰ C=
6.1 + log ( total CO ₂ )- (0.0301 X PCO ₂)
( 0.0301 )X 40 (pCO ₂)
48. Laboratory determination of blood gas analysis
• Standardization : by measuring the p H or the blood at its actual PCO₂ & at
accurately known PCO₂ values ,one higher & one lower than the normal
PCO₂. This can be achieved by equilibrating two portions of the blood with
carbon dioxide & oxygen mixture with PCO₂ values between 30 -60 mmHg
respectively .This reduces experimental error since the actual PCO₂ values
are between 30-60 mmHg.
• 2. A Nomogram is constructed by plotting log PCO₂ against p H .It is possible
to calculate standard bicarbonate & base excess ( or deficit ) .
49.
50.
51. Laboratory findings in compensated acidosis & alkalosis
Clinical conditions pH PCO₂ Bicarbonate PO₂
Respiratory acidosis Fall Rise Rise Rise
Respiratory alkalosis Rise Fall Fall Fall
Metabolic acidosis Fall Fall Fall Fall
Metabolic alkalosis Rise Rise Rise Rise