Introduction of Automation of the Analytical Process
Unit Operations
Specimen identification
Specimen preparation
Specimen delivery
Specimen loading and aspiration
Specimen processing
Sample induction and internal transport
Reagent handling and storage
Chemical reaction phase
Measurement approaches
Signal processing, data handling and process control
Applications of automation in clinical lab
1. Automation in the Clinical Laboratory
Course: Clinical Laboratory Principle (SIMS-443)
ZA School of Medical Technology
1
Dr. Ali Raza
Senior Lecturer
SIMS-SIUT
2. Automation in the clinical laboratory
Introduction
Automation of the Analytical Process
Unit Operations
Specimen identification
Specimen preparation
Specimen delivery
Specimen loading and aspiration
Specimen processing
Sample induction and internal transport
Reagent handling and storage
Chemical reaction phase
Measurement approaches
Signal processing, data handling and process control
Applications
2
4. Automation
in the clinical laboratory
Definition:
“ The process whereby an analytical instrument performs
many tests with only minimal involvement of an analyst”
“ Controlled operation of an apparatus, process, or system
by mechanical or electronic devices without human
intervention”
4
5. Automation in the clinical laboratory
Intelligent automation :
• Built in systems to self-monitor and respond
appropriately to changing conditions.
• Instrument performs a repetitive task by itself,
• Instrument performs a variety of different tasks.
5
6. Advantages of automation
Automated instruments enables laboratories to
Process much larger workloads
Reduce number of staff
Reduction in the variability of results and errors of
analysis
Significant improvement in the quality of lab tests
Cost reduction
6
7. Advantages of Automation
• Assist the laboratory technologist in test performance
(1) Processing and transport of specimens
(2) Loading of specimens into automated analyzers
(3) Assessment of the results of the performed tests.
7
8. Principle: Automation in the clinical laboratory
Automated analyzers generally incorporates mechanized
version of basic manual laboratory techniques and
procedures
Modern instrumentation is packaged in a wide variety of
configurations.
Common configuration is the Random-Access Analyzer.
8
9. Random-Access Analysis
Analyses are performed on a collection of specimens sequentially,
with each specimen analyzed for a different selection of tests.
This approach permits measurement of a variable number and
variety of analytes in each specimen
9
10. Random-access analysis
Profiles or groups of tests are defined for a specimen at
the time the tests to be performed are entered into the
analyzer
(1) A keyboard
(2) by instruction from a laboratory information system
(3) Conjunction with bar coding on the specimen tube
(4) by operator selection of appropriate reagent packs
10
11. Unit Operations
(11) Steps required to complete an analysis are referred to
collectively as unit operations
11
12. 1-Specimen Identification
• The identifying link (identifier) between Patient and
specimen is made at the patient's bedside
• Maintenance of identifier should remains throughout
(1) Transport of the specimen to the laboratory,
(2) Specimen Analysis,
3) Preparation of a Report
12
13. 1- Specimen Identification
Automatic Identification and Data Collection (AIDC)
Electronically detect a unique characteristic or unique data
string associated with a physical object.
Example of identifiers:
(1) Serial number
(2) Part number
(3) Colour
(4) Manufacturer
(5) Patient number
13
16. Bar Coding
• Incorporation of bar coding
technology into analytical systems.
• Initiating bar code identification at a
patient's bedside ensures greater
integrity of the specimen's identity in
an analyzer.
16
17. Labeling
• Electronic entry of a test order for a uniquely
identified patient generates a specimen label bearing
a unique laboratory Accession Number.
Laboratory station
Nursing station
• The unique label is fixed to the specimen
collection tube when the blood is drawn.
17
19. A- Primary labeling
Arrival of the Specimen (log-in)
Patient Identification and Collection Information
Laboratory Requisition Form
An Accession Number
19
21. B-Secondary labeling:
• Bearing essential
information from the
original label must be
affixed to any secondary
tubes created.
• E.g:
Serum removal from the
original tube
21
A number may be handwritten on the specimen cup,
or a coded label may be affixed to the original tube or
to a specimen cup.
23. Bar Coding System
Symbology :
• describe as the rules specifying the way the data are
encoded into the bars and spaces.
Specification for that symbology.:
• The width of the bars and spaces,
• The number of each bar
Different combinations of the bars and spaces
represent different characters.
23
25. Bar Coding System
• When a bar code scanner is passed over the bar code, the
light beam from the scanner is absorbed by the dark bars
and not reflected;
• But the beam is reflected by the light spaces.
• A photocell detector in the scanner receives the reflected
light
• converts that light into an electrical signal that then is digitized.
25
26. Bar Coding System
One-dimensional bar coding systems
Two-dimensional bar coding systems
26
27. One-dimensional bar coding systems
is an array of rectangular bars and spaces arranged in a
predetermined pattern following unambiguous rules to
represent elements of data referred to as characters.
27
28. Two-dimensional bar coding systems
The data is encoded based on both the vertical and horizontal
arrangement of the pattern, thus it is read in two dimensions.
doesn't just encode alphanumeric information.
use patterns of squares, hexagons, dots, and other shapes to
encode data.
Example:
Data Matrix
QR Code
PDF417
or
28
PDF417
29. Choice for automatic identification: Bar Code Technology
“Decrease in identification Errors”
29
30. Errors
“The state or condition of being wrong in conduct or
judgement.”
“ A measure of the estimated difference between the
observed or calculated value of a quantity and its true
value.”
30
31. Errors
• Human misreading of either specimen label or
loading list may cause
• misplacement of specimens, calibrators, or
controls.
31
32. Identification Errors
Error risks begin at the bedside
Compounded with each specimen processing step
between collection and analysis.
• High risks with hand transcription :
• Accessioning,
• labeling and relabeling,
• Creation of load lists.
32
34. 2- Specimen Preparation
• Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay
• Examples :
Clotting of blood
Centrifugation
Transfer of serum to secondary tubes
34
35. 2- Specimen Preparation
• Whole blood assay system: specimen preparation time
essentially is eliminated.
• Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes:
Measure ion activity in whole blood rather than Ion
concentration
35
37. 3- Specimen Delivery
Methods are used to deliver specimens to the lab
1) Courier Service
2) Pneumatic tube systems
3) Electric track vehicles:
4) Mobile robots
37
38. Courier Service
Collection site to the lab and between lab
At a given pick up point and specified time.
Arrangement of immediate pick up adds cost to the analytical
process
Specimen breakage
38
39. Pneumatic tube systems
Propel cylindrical containers through networks
By compressed air or by partial vacuum.
used for transporting solid objects
39
40. Electric track vehicles
• Conveyor system for light goods transport.
• utilizes independently driven vehicles
• traveling on a monorail track network
40
41. Mobile Robots
41
Successful to transport lab
specimen both within lab and
outside lab.
Various sizes and shapes of
specimen containers
Programmable
Cost effective
43. 4- Specimen Loading and Aspiration
• Automatic analyzer directly analyzed serum/plasma from
primary collection tube
• Serum transferred from the specimen tubes to cups
CUP features:
• Permit required volume for testing
• Made of inert material
• Disposable
• Minimize cost
• Minimize Evaporation
43
44. 4- Specimen Loading and Aspiration
• Specimens may undergo
• Evaporation
• Degradation
a) Thermo-labile Analytes: Temperatures
b) Photo labile Analytes : Photo degradation. E.g.: Bilirubin
• Specimens and calibrators are held at refrigerated loading zone
for Thermo-labile Analytes
• Reduced Photo-degradation by
• Semi-opaque cups
• smoke- or orange-colored plastic covers
The loading zone: area in which specimens are held in the instrument before they are
analyzed.
44
45. 4- Specimen Loading and Aspiration
Contamination
• Splatter of serum
• Stoppers of primary containers are opened
• Decant serum into specimen cups
45
46. 4- Specimen Loading and Aspiration
Contamination
Closed container sampling systems
• Initially penetrates the primary container's rubber stopper,
followed by
• the specimen probe passes through a hollow needle
• Prevents damage or plugging of the specimen probe
• After the specimen probe is withdrawn, the outer hollow
needle also is withdrawn so that the stopper reseals and no
specimen escapes.
• Examples: Automated hematology and chemistry analyzers.
46
48. 5- Specimen Processing
Automation of analytical procedures requires removal of
• Proteins
• Other interferants
To automate this separation step, several automated
immunoassay analyzers use bound antibodies or
proteins in a solid phase format.
48
49. 5- Specimen Processing
• Binding of antigens and antibodies occurs on a solid
surface to which the antibodies or reactive proteins
have been adsorbed or chemically bonded.
Solid phases are
(1) Beads
(2) coated tubes
(3) Microtiter plates
(4) Magnetic & Nonmagnetic Microparticles
(5) Fiber matrices
49
51. 6- Sample Introduction and Internal Transport
• Sample introduction into the analyzer and its subsequent
transport within the analyzer
A) Continuous-flow Systems
B) Discrete Processing Systems
51
52. Continuous-flow Systems
A type of sample analysis in which each specimen in a
batch passes through the same continuous stream at the
same rate and is subjected to the same analytical
reactions
52
53. Discrete Processing Systems
A type of analysis in which each specimen in a batch has
its own physical and chemical space separate from other
specimen.
53
54. A) Continuous-flow Systems:
• Peristaltic Pump
• Sample is aspirated through the sample probe
• into a stream of flowing liquid, whereby transported to
analytical stations in the instrument
• To ensure proportionality between calibrators, controls, and
specimens, the pump and roller speed must remain constant.
Peristaltic pump
54
55. B) Discrete Processing Systems
• Positive-liquid-displacement pipettes
• Specimens, calibrators, and controls are delivered
by a single pipette to the next stage in the analytical process.
• A positive-displacement pipette designed for
1- to dispense only aspirated sample into the reaction receptacle
2- to flush out sample together with diluent.
55
56. 6- Sample Introduction and Internal Transport
• Carry-Over:
Transport of a quantity of analytes or reagent from one specimen
reaction into and contaminating a subsequent one.
56
57. Carry-Over
• Minimized by
• Adequate flush-to-specimen ratio and incorporating wash
stations for the sample probe.
• Wiping the outside of the sample probe to prevent transfer of
a portion of the previous specimen into the next specimen
cup.
• Using New pipette tip for each pipetting
57
59. 7- Reagent Handling and Storage
• Reagent Handling:
Labels on reagent containers include information such as
(1) Reagent identification
(2) Volume of the contents or number of tests
(3) Expiration date
(4) Lot number
Storage
• Plastic or glass containers used for reagents storage
59
61. Open Versus Closed Systems
Open system
• change the parameters
related to an analysis
• prepare "in-house" reagents
• use reagents from a variety
of suppliers.
• Less expansive
• Longer stability
Closed system
• reagent to be in a
unique container or
• format provided by the
manufacturer.
• Expansive
• Shorter stability
61
63. 8- Reagent Delivery
• Liquid reagents are acquired and delivered to mixing
and reaction chambers either by
• Pumps (through tubes)
• Positive-displacement syringe devices
63
65. 9- Chemical Reaction Phase
• Sample and reagents react in the chemical reaction
phase.
• Factors are important in this phase
(1) Vessel in which the reaction occurs
(2) Cuvet in which the reaction is monitored
(3) Timing of the reaction(s)
(4) Mixing and transport of reactants
(5) Thermal conditioning of fluids.
65
66. 9- Chemical Reaction Phase
Reaction vessels: Reused in many instruments.
• Time before reusable must be replaced depends on their
composition . E.g.:
• 1 month for plastic
• 2 years for standard glass vessels
• Not replaced unless physically damaged. Pyrex glass
Cuvet: disposable cuvets
• simplified automation
• eliminated carryover and maintenance of flow cells.
• development of improved plastics ( acrylic and polyvinylchloride)
and manufacturing technology.
66
67. Timing of the reaction(s):
• The time allowed for a reaction to occur depends on a variety of
factors.
• Reaction time depends on the rate of transport of reaction mixture
through the system to the measurement station.
Mixing and transport of Reactants
1. Forceful dispensing
2. Magnetic stirring
3. Vigorous lateral displacement
4. A rotating paddle
5. Use of ultrasonic energy
67
68. Thermal Regulation:
Establishment of a controlled temperature environment
in close contact with the reaction container
Efficient heat transfer from the environment to the
reaction mixture.
68
71. 10- Measurement Approaches
(Photomety or Spectrophotomety)
The measurement of absorbance requires the following three basic
components
1. An optical source: Radiant energy sources used in automated
systems
• E.g: Tungsten, quartz-halogen, deuterium, mercury, xenon lamps,
and lasers.
• Spectrum wavelengths 300 to 700 nm.
71
72. 2. Spectral Isolation
• Spectral isolation is achieved by Interference filters.
• Filters have peak transmissions of 30 - 80% and bandwidths
of 5 to 15 nm
• Filters are mounted in a filter wheel,
• Appropriate filter is moved into place under command of the
system's computer
72
73. Spectral Isolation
• Monochromators with gratings and slits provide a continuous
choice of wavelengths.
• Coupled with a stationary photodiode array, to isolate the
spectrum.
• These two elements also are coupled with fiber-optic light
guides to transfer the passage of light energy through cuvets
at locations convenient for mechanization.
73
74. 3. A detector
• Photometric Detectors:
• Photodiodes used as detectors in many automated
systems
• Provide a high signal to noise ratio and fast detector
response times for fluorescent and chemiluminescent
measurements.
74
75. 3. A detector
• Notes:
• Proper alignment of cuvets with the light path(s) is important
in both automated and manual analyzers.
• Stray energy and internal reflections must be kept to acceptable
levels.
• If the light path is not perpendicular to the cuvet, inaccuracy and
imprecision may occur, particularly in kinetic analyses.
75
77. Reflectance Photometry
• In reflectance photometry diffuse reflected light is measured.
• The reflected light results from illumination, with diffused
light, of a reaction mixture in a carrier or from the diffusion
of light by a reaction mixture in an illuminated carrier.
• The intensity of the reflected light from the reagent carrier is
compared with that reflected from a reference surface.
77
78. Fluorometry
• emission of electromagnetic radiation by a species that has
absorbed exciting radiation from an outside source.
• Intensity of emitted (fluorescent) light is directly proportional to
concentration of the excited species
• used widely for automated immunoassay.
• It is approximately 1000 times more sensitive than comparable
absorbance spectrophotometry,
• but background interference due to fluorescence of native
serum is a major problem.
78
79. Turbidimetry and Nephelometry
• Turbidimetry and nephelometry are optical techniques
• Are applicable to methods measuring the precipitate
formation in antigen-antibody reactions
• These techniques are used to measure plasma proteins
and for therapeutic drug monitoring.
79
80. Chemiluminescence and Bioluminescence
• Chemiluminescence and bioluminescence differ from fluorometry
in that the excitation event is caused by a chemical or
electrochemical reaction and not by photo-luminescence
• The applications of chemiluminescence and bioluminescence
have increased significantly with the development of automated
instrumentation and several new reagent systems.
• Because of their attamole-to-zeptomole detection limits,
chemiluminescence and bioluminescence reactions have been
used widely as direct and indicator labels in the development of
immunoassays.
80
81. Electrochemical
• The most widely used electrochemical approach involves ion-
selective electrodes.
• These electrodes have replaced flame photometry in the
determination of sodium and potassium.
• Electrochemical detectors also have been used for the
measurement of other electrolytes and indirect application in the
analysis of several other serum constituents
• The relationship between ion activity and the concentration of
ions in the specimens must be established with calibrating
solutions, and such electrodes need to be recalibrated frequently
to compensate for alterations of electrode response.
81
83. 11- Signal Processing, Data handling and Process Control
• The interfacing and integration of computers into automated
analyzers and analytical systems has had a major impact on the
acquisition and processing of analytical data.
• Analogue signals are converted to digital forms by analog-to-
digital converters.
• The computer and resident software then process the digital data
into useful and meaningful output.
• Data processing has allowed automation of such procedures as
nonisotopic immunoassays and reflectance spectrometry because
computer algorithms readily transform complex, nonlinear
standard responses into linear calibration curves.
83
84. 11- Signal Processing, Data handling and Process Control
Several functions performed by integrated computers in
automated analyzers
• Command and phase the electromechanical operation
of the analyzer are performed
• Uniformly
• Repeatable
• Correct Sequence
• Control of operational features of automated equipment,
• calculation of results,
• monitoring of operation contribute to the increased
reproducibility of results. 84
85. 11- Signal Processing, Data handling and Process Control
• Computers acquire, assess, process, and store operational
data from the analyzers.
• Monitor instrument functions for correct execution and react
to improper function by recording the site and nature of the
malfunction.
• Computers enable communication interactions between
the analyzer and operator.
• Diagnostic computer messages to the user describing the site
and type of problem enable quick identification of problems
and prompt correction.
• Graphical displays provide detailed and interactive
troubleshooting guidance to instrument operators and visual
display of the status of each specimen and associated quality
control data. 85
86. • Permit interactive communication between computer
systems in the modem laboratory analyzer and the
Laboratory Information System (LIS).
• Instrument manufacturers have been developing ethernet
interfaces for networked connections with TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/lnternet Protocol).
86
87. Workstation
(1)Serves as the point of interaction with the instrument
operator
(2)Accepts test orders
(3)Monitors the testing process
(4) Assists with analysis of process quality
(5) Provides facilities for review and verification of test results
87
88. Workstation
The workstation is usually directly interfaced with the LIS
host, accepting downloaded test orders, and uploading
test results.
Most workstations have facilities to
(1) display Levy-Jennings quality control charts,
(2) monitor the progress of each test order, and
(3) troubleshoot the analyze
88
89. Integrated automation for clinical laboratory
1. Chemistry
2. Hematology
3. Immunoassay
4. Coagulation
5. Microbiology
6. Nucleic acid testing
• Provide efficient and cost-effective operation with a
minimum of operator input.
89
90. Instrument Cluster
To reduce labor costs, instrument manufacturers are
developing approaches that will allow a single
technologist to simultaneously control and monitor the
functions of several instruments.
90
91. Automation
Processes have been automated and used in the clinical
laboratory.
1. Urine analyzers
2. Cell counters
3. Nucleic acid analyzers
4. Microtiter plate systems
5. Automated pipetting stations
6. Point of- care testing analyzers.
91
92. Automation
Urine Analyzers
Many of the same analytical principles are used for the
quantification of serum and urine constituents.
It is more difficult to automate testing of urine than serum
because of the broad range of concentrations of many urine
constituents.
This requires a low limit of detection to measure low
concentrations, and expanded linearity to permit measurements
of high concentrations without dilution.
This requirement, together with the relatively low demand for
urine tests compared with that for serum tests, has restricted
the development of analyzers designed specifically for urine
constituents. 92
93. 1. Cell Counters:
Analyzers that perform a complete blood count have been
automated through the use of the "Coulter principle,'' which
is based on
(1) Cell conductivity
(2) light scatter
(3) Flow cytometry.
93
94. 1. Cell Counters
The Coulter principle is based on changes in electrical impedance produced by
nonconductive particles suspended in an electrolyte as they pass through a small
aperture between electrodes.
In the sensing zone of the aperture, the volume of electrolyte displaced by the particle
(cell) is measured as a change in voltage that is proportional to the volume of the
particle.
By carefully controlling the quantity of electrolyte drawn through the aperture, several
thousand particles per second are counted and sized individually.
Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are identified by their sizes.
Alternating current in the radiofrequency range short-circuits the bipolar lipid layer of
the cell membrane, allowing energy to penetrate the cell.
Information about intracellular structure, including chemical composition and nuclear
volume, is collected with this technique.
94
95. Flow Cytometry
Cells stained with a fluorescent dye that travel in suspension one
by one past a laser light source. (Unstained cells also are
measured.)
Scattered light and emitted light are collected in front of the light
source and at right angles, respectively.
Information derived through measurement of light scatter when
a cell is struck by the laser beam is then used to estimate
(1) Cell Shape
(2) Size
(3) Cellular granularity
(4) Nuclear lobularity
(5) Cell surface structure
95
96. Automation
Nucleic Acid Analyzers:
Automation of the analysis of nucleic acids developed
rapidly as an outgrowth of the Human Genome Project.“
Several manufacturers have developed automation to
assist with the isolation of nucleic acids and with
analysis of nucleic acids using several amplification
schemes and nucleic acid sequencing.
Many of these techniques have been miniaturized using
chip technology Microfluidic chip
96
97. Microtiter Plate Systems
Commonly used in immunoassays and nucleic acid analyses.
As used for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays,
microtiter plates usually are made of polystyrene and have 48 or
96 wells coated with antibody
specific for the antigen of interest.
After incubation of serum in the microtiter plate well, the well is
washed to remove unbound antigen, and a second antibody with
conjugated indicator
enzyme is added.
97
98. Microtiter plate systems
After a second incubation period, the well is washed to remove the unbound
conjugate.
A color producing product is developed by the addition of enzyme substrate and
the reaction is terminated at a specific time.
With the development of automated pipetting stations, the liquid handling steps
required for microtiter plate assays have been fully automated to make
microtiter plate assays a viable technology for carrying out large numbers of
immunoassays.
Automated pipetting stations have a cartesian robot with a pipette fixed to the
end of a probe that moves about a rectangular space.
The probe is capable of moving in the X, Y, and Z axes. Liquids may be aspirated
and dispensed in any location within the rectangular space.
98
99. Automatic Pipetting stations
• used to automate an analytical procedure for which an
automated analyzer does not exist or cannot be justified.
Pipetting robots are
(1) Easy to program
(2) Rarely malfunction
(3) delivering aliquots with precision and accuracy.
(4) Multiple-channel pipetting Robots:
allow parallel processing of specimens with 8- or 12-
channel probes to handle microtiter plates.
99
100. Point-of-Care Testing Analyzers
(POCT Analyzers )
• known by a variety of names
"near-patient"
"decentralized"
"off-site" testing
• Rapidly growing component of laboratory testing
100
Molecular diagnostics based on nucleic acids, represents one of the most rapidly developing areas in laboratory medicine.
Advances in the field have been made possible by our improved understanding of molecular biology and genetics and of their relationships with human diseases, and the development of powerful technologies for the analysis of nucleic acids.
AIDC, Auto ID, automatic data capture and automatic data collection) is a family of technologies that identify, verify, record, communicate and store information on discrete, packaged or containerized items. Because the process is automated (rather than reliant on pen, paper and people), information is gathered quickly and accurately. The most common technologies used to identify and capture data are barcodes, handheld and fixed-position scanners and imagers, radio frequency identification (RFID) tags and readers, and voice recognition, weighing and cubing devices. Typical applications include receiving and putaway, inventory picking, order fulfillment, determination of weight and volume, and tracking and tracing throughout the supply chain.
Optical character recognition or optical character reader (OCR) is the electronic or mechanical conversion of images of typed, handwritten or printed text into machine-encoded text, whether from a scanned document, a photo of a document, a scene-photo (for example the text on signs and billboards in a landscape photo) ...
n official order laying claim to the use of property or materials.
After accessioning specimens begin the technical handling processes
The risks begin at the bedside
Compounded with each processing step a specimen undergoes between collection from the patient and anaiysis by the instrument.
The risks are particularly great when hand transcription is invoked for accessioning, labeling and relabeling, and creation of load lists.
Human misreading of either specimen label or loading list may cause misplacement of specimens, calibrators, or controls.
The risks begin at the bedside
Compounded with each processing step a specimen undergoes between collection from the patient and anaiysis by the instrument.
The risks are particularly great when hand transcription is invoked for accessioning, labeling and relabeling, and creation of load lists.
Human misreading of either specimen label or loading list may cause misplacement of specimens, calibrators, or controls.
The risks begin at the bedside
Compounded with each processing step a specimen undergoes between collection from the patient and anaiysis by the instrument.
The risks are particularly great when hand transcription is invoked for accessioning, labeling and relabeling, and creation of load lists.
Human misreading of either specimen label or loading list may cause misplacement of specimens, calibrators, or controls.
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
Pneumatic tube systems:
Systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum.
used for transporting solid objects
Electric track vehicles:
is a conveyor system for light goods transport. The system utilizes independently driven vehicles traveling on a monorail track network, consisting of straight track elements, bends, curves and transfer-units for changing of travel direction.
Pneumatic tube systems:
Systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum.
used for transporting solid objects
Electric track vehicles:
is a conveyor system for light goods transport. The system utilizes independently driven vehicles traveling on a monorail track network, consisting of straight track elements, bends, curves and transfer-units for changing of travel direction.
Pneumatic tube systems:
Systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum.
used for transporting solid objects
Electric track vehicles:
is a conveyor system for light goods transport. The system utilizes independently driven vehicles traveling on a monorail track network, consisting of straight track elements, bends, curves and transfer-units for changing of travel direction.
Pneumatic tube systems:
Systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum.
used for transporting solid objects
Electric track vehicles:
is a conveyor system for light goods transport. The system utilizes independently driven vehicles traveling on a monorail track network, consisting of straight track elements, bends, curves and transfer-units for changing of travel direction.
Pneumatic tube systems:
Systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum.
used for transporting solid objects
Electric track vehicles:
is a conveyor system for light goods transport. The system utilizes independently driven vehicles traveling on a monorail track network, consisting of straight track elements, bends, curves and transfer-units for changing of travel direction.
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
the specimen for automatic analysis is serum.
contain separator material
Many analyzers also sample from cups or tubes filled with serum transferred from the original specimen tubes
excess serum that must be present in a cup to permit aspiration
of the full volume required for testing.
Cups must be made of inert material so that they do not interact with the analytes being measured.
Specimen cups also should be disposable to minimize cost, and their shape should, even without a cap, minimize evaporation.
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
Automation of analytical procedures requires removal of
Proteins
other interferants from some specimens
and to separate free and bound fractions of heterogeneous
immunoassays.
Automation of analytical procedures requires removal of
Proteins
other interferants from some specimens
and to separate free and bound fractions of heterogeneous
immunoassays.
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).
The slit function is the monochromatic image of the entrance slit of the spectrometer on the detector
Manually Specimen Preparation process results in a delay in the preparation of a specimen for analysis.
clotting of blood in specimen collection tubes, their subsequent centrifugation, and the transfer of serum to secondary tubes requires a finite time to complete.
whole blood is used in an assay system, specimen
preparation time essentially is eliminated.
Automated or semi automated ion-selective electrodes, which measure ion activity in whole blood rather than ion concentration,