Basic Electronics by Er. Swapnil Kaware

*FEL Notes By Er. Swapnil Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*
Page1
Chapter No. 1. Electronic Devices.
Points to remember…..
(i). Valence bond:- Outermost (highest) band filled with electrons (i.e. all states occupied).
(ii). Conduction bond:- Next highest band to valence band (empty or partly filled).
(iii). Covalent bond:- These bonds are formed due to sharing of electrons.
(iv). Doping:- Adding impurities to semiconductor.
(v). Barrier potential:- Electric field across the junction.
(vi). Depletion region:- This region contains no charge carriers or it contains only positive & negative
immobile ions.
(vii). P-N junction diode:- It is formed by joining n-type and p-type silicon materials together.
Q(1). Explain or Define Conductor?.
Conductors are the substances or materials which allows the electric current to pass through them.
There is no ‘forbidden gap’ is present between valence band & conduction band. In case of ‘forbidden gap’
no electron states are allowed. Hence it contains larger number of free electrons. Conductivity is very high
& resistivity is very low. In this resistance is directly proportional to temperature.
e.g. copper, gold, silver, iron, aluminium, water, graphite etc.
Q(2). Explain or Define Insulator?.
Insulators are the substances or materials which does not allows the electric current to pass through them.
There is large ‘forbidden gap’ is present between valence band & conduction band. Hence it contains small
or even zero number of free electrons. Conductivity is very low & resistivity is very high. The resistance is
directly proportional to temperature.
e.g. rubber, plastic, wood, glass, paper etc.
Q(3). Explain or Define Impurities?.
Impurities are added to intrinsic Semiconductors to increase n or p we get extrinsic Semiconductors. There
are 2 types of impurities:
(1). Donors: Such as P & As (i.e. one electron will be donated and becomes free).
(2). Acceptors: Such as B & Ar (i.e. they accept an electron).
Q(4). Explain or Define Semiconductor?.
These are the materials or substances which can acts as conductor as well as insulator.
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and good
conductors ‘forbidden gap’ very small. Conductivity of the semiconductor increases as temperature
increases. So, as temperature increases electrical resistance of the semiconductor decreases.
e.g. Germanium and Silicon.

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Classification of semiconductors:-
Q(5). Explain or Define Intrinsic or Pure Semiconductor?.
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its extremely pure form
called as an ‘undoped semiconductor’ or ‘i-type semiconductor’.
The ratio of impurity atoms (other atoms) to the semiconductor part is 1>:100 million. The number of
charge carriers is therefore determined by the properties of the material itself instead of the amount of
impurities. In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
number of holes in the valence band i.e. ‘n=p’. In this covalent bond makes outermost orbit of atoms in
stable condition. No free electrons are available at zero temperature hence these type of semiconductors
acts as a perfect insulator at zero temperature. In this type of semiconductor there are total 4 electrons in
its valence orbit section. Hence to complete the valence shell orbit section each silicon atom acquires four
more electrons by sharing one electron from each of the four neighboring atoms.
Hence finally it appears like a crystalline structure.
Q(6). Explain Extrinsic or Impure Semiconductor?.
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its Impure form.
An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been doped, that is, into which a doping agent has
been introduced. In an extrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in the conduction band is not equal
to the number of holes in the valence band i.e. ‘n≠p’. The ratio of impurity atoms to the intrinsic
semiconductor part is 1<:100 million.

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Number of impurity atoms increases number of free electrons or holes. Depending on the type of doping
material used, extrinsic semiconductors can be sub-divided into two classes:
(1). N-type semiconductors & (2). P-type semiconductors.
Q(7). Explain N-type semiconductors?.
This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent impurity/material like Arsenic (As) or
Phosphorus(P) or Antimony(Sb) is added to pure germanium or silicon crystal. As shown in Fig. below,
each arsenic atom forms covalent bonds with the surrounding four silicon atoms with the help of four of its
five electrons. The fifth electron is superfluous and is loosely bound to the arsenic atom. Hence, it can be
easily excited from the valence band to the conduction band by the application of electric field. this extra
electron becomes available for conduction. Hence electrons are the majority carriers while holes constitute
the minority carriers. So hence such type of semiconductors are called as N-type semiconductors.
Q(8). Explain P-type semiconductors?.
This type of semiconductor is obtained when a Trivalent impurity/material like Boron (B) or Gallium(Ga)
is added to pure germanium or silicon crystal. As shown in Fig. below, each Gallium(Ga) atom forms
covalent bonds with the surrounding four silicon atoms with the help of three electrons. Hence fourth
covalent bond becomes incomplete because Gallium atom has only three valence electrons. Hence there is
no electron around the Gallium atom. Thus the resulting charge carrier is known as ‘hole’ which is
positively charged carrier. Hence holes are the majority carriers while electrons constitute the minority
carriers. So hence such type of semiconductors are called as P-type semiconductors.

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Q(9). What is Diode, draw its symbol & also give its construction details?.
(Symbol of diode)
The circuit schematic symbol of a diode is shown in above figure.
1. The diodes are unidirectional & acts like a check valve, allowing current flow in one direction and
restricting it in the other direction.
2. In this current flows from cathode to anode (electron current flow).
3. Used in rectifier circuits, power supply circuits& inverter circuits etc.
Q(10). Explain working/ operation of P-N junction Diode in forward bias mode?.
In forward bias mode, positive terminal of battery is connected to P region while negative terminal of
battery is connected to N region of P-N junction diode. In this negative terminal of battery repels the
electrons present in N region towards P region. Similarly positive terminal of battery repels the holes
present in P region towards N region. As soon as we apply increasing voltage the holes combine with
negative ions & electrons combine with positive ions and finally both ions get converted into neutral
atoms (immobile ions). Hence width of the depletion region decreases. As barrier potential is directly
proportional to depletion region width so hence barrier potential also reduces. Finally there is no
opposition to the flow of charge carriers (i.e. electrons & holes). Which helps to flow electric current
also called as forward current Travelling from anode to cathode.

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Q(11). Explain working/ operation of P-N junction Diode in Reverse bias mode?
In Reverse bias mode, positive terminal of battery is connected to N region while negative terminal of
battery is connected to P region of P-N junction diode. In this negative terminal of battery attracts the
holes present in P region. Similarly positive terminal of battery attracts the electrons present in N region.
As soon as we apply increasing voltage the holes from the P region & electrons from the N region moves
away from the junction. Hence width of the depletion region increases. As barrier potential is directly
proportional to depletion region width so hence barrier potential also increases. Finally there is
opposition to the flow of charge carriers (i.e. electrons & holes). But there is a very small (i.e. negligible)
current known as reverse saturation current totally depends on temperature due to minority carriers
travels from cathode to anode. This reverse saturation current is in the range of nA for Silicon diode & uA
for Germanium diode.
Q(12). Draw V-I or forward & reverse characteristics of P-N junction diode?

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Q(13). What is Zener diode & also draw its symbol?.
A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as an
ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value
known as the breakdown voltage, "zener knee voltage" or "zener voltage" or "Avalanche point". These
diodes are made by heavily doped N and P type semiconductors. In zener diodes different voltage levels
have different voltage capacity.
Q(14). Draw V-I or forward & reverse characteristics of Zener diode?
Q(15). Give/List any four applications of Zener diode?.
(a). As a voltage reference element. (b). In voltage regulator circuit.
(c). In regulated power supply. (d). In pulse amplifier.
Q(16). Give/List any specifications of Zener diode?.
(a). Zener voltage range:- from 2.4V to 200V. (b). Maximum current range: from 10mA to 100mA.
(c). Maximum power dissipation:- 150mW to 50W. (d). Tolerance:- 5%.
Q(17). What is Power diode & also draw its symbol?.
These are the diodes useful for handling currents of higher ranges i.e. these diodes have larger power
voltage & current handling capability.
Q(18). What is Varactor diode & also draw its symbol?.
Varactor stands for Variable capacitor i.e. can be used as voltage dependent variable capacitor. Also known
as varicap.

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Q(19). Give/List any four applications of Varactor diode?.
(a). FM Modulator. (b). In frequency control circuit. (c). In amplifier. (d). In filter circuit.
(d). In TV receivers.
Q(20). Explain/Describe BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)?.
It is a three-terminal device that, in most logic circuits, acts like a current-controlled switch.
In this type of transistor conduction takes place due to two types of charge carriers i.e. electrons & holes.
It has three separately doped regions i.e. emitter, base & collector with two P-N junctions.
(1). Base:-It is the control terminal.
(2). Emitter:- It is the source of majority carriers.
(3). Collector:- It is the collector of majority carriers.
BJT mainly operates in following three modes.
(i). Cutoff mode: Transistor acts like an open switch between collector and emitter (i.e. collector–emitter
“resistance” is infinite).
(ii). Active mode: Transistor acts like a dynamic resistor between collector and emitter that adjusts its
resistance in order to keep collector current at a set level (i.e. collector–emitter resistance is finite and
positive).
(iii). Saturation mode: Transistor acts like a closed switch between collector and emitter (i.e. collector–
emitter “resistance” is very low).
.
There are two types of transistors,
(a). P-N-P Transistor,
(b). N-P-N Transistor.
Q(21). Draw constructional details & symbol of P-N-P Transistor ?.
Region Base-Emitter junction Collector-Base junction
Cut-off Reverse biased Reverse biased
Active Forward biased Reverse biased
Saturation Forward biased Forward biased

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Q(22). Draw constructional details & symbol of N-P-N Transistor?.
Q(23). Explain/describe operation/working principle of N-P-N Transistor?.
As seen from the above diagram of N-P-N transistor, negative supply of battery is connected to N type
Emitter & positive supply of battery is connected to N type Collector. Hence the Base-Emitter junction is
forward bias & Collector-base is reverse biased. So width of the B-E region becomes very small & width of
the C-B region becomes very large. As soon as we apply the battery supply the electrons from N type
Emitter terminal starts travelling towards P type Base terminal. Also we know that Base terminal is very
thin & lightly doped as compared to Emitter terminal. So, majority of electrons from N region recombine
with minority of hole present in P region. As a result such a smaller recombination of electrons & holes
creates base current IB. Typically this base current is about 2% of emitter current IE. Means 2% of the
Electrons & holes flow out from the base terminal & remaining 98% crosses the reverse biased Collector
region. This operation creates the Collector current known as IE. Hence finally we can say that Emitter
current is combination of Base current & Collector current. Therefore, IE=IB+IC.
Q(24). Define common Base current gain (α)?.
It is defined as ratio of output current to input current.
(α)=IC/IE. The value of current gain (α) is <<=1.

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Q(25). Define common Emitter current gain (β)?.
It is defined as ratio of collector current to base current.
(β)=IC/IB. The value of current gain (β)> (α) and the value of (β) falls between the range 50 to 150.
Q(26). Draw input characteristics of N-P-N transistor?.
Q(27). Draw output characteristics of N-P-N transistor?.
Q(28). Give/List any four applications of BJT transistor?.
(a). Can be used as current controlled device. (b). Can be used as current amplifier.
(c). Can be used as an switch. (d). Can be used in regulated power supply.
Q(29). Draw symbol of n-channel JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor) & p-channel JFET?.

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Q(30).Compare/ write differences between BJT & JFET?.
BJT JFET
(1). It is a current controlled device. (1). It is a Voltage controlled device.
(2). Bipolar device. (2). Unipolar device.
(3). Current flows due to majority & minority
of charge carriers.
(3). Current flows only due to majority of charge
carriers.
(4). Larger in size. (4). Smaller in size.
(5). Transfer characteristics are linear. (5). Transfer characteristics are not linear.
(6). Noise generation is high. (6). Noise generation is small.
Q(31). Explain/Justify why JFET is a voltage controlled device?.
In case of JFET output characteristics are determined by the field which depends on the voltage applied.
Also in JFET gate to source (VGs) voltage is responsible for controlling drain current ID. Hence JFET is a
voltage controlled device.

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Q(32). Explain/Describe operation/working principle of n-channel JFET ?.
The structure & symbol of n channel JFET is as shown in above figure. Since the channel of JFET is made up
of n region so we called it as n channel JFET. In this there is a n type semiconductor and there are two p
regions on the opposite ends of n region. The ohmic contacts (direct electrical contacts) are made on both n
regions called as source (S) & drain (D). The two p regions are internally connected with each other & also
externally connected with Gate (G) terminal. The area between the gates is known as channel. Source is the
terminal through which majority of carriers enters the region & Drain is the terminal through which
majority of carriers leaves the region. Gate terminal is formed by internally connected heavily doped p
region. The supply voltage is connected between Drain & source terminals, as we know that in n region
there are majority carriers are electrons hence current is caused to flow along with this n region. The
positive voltage VDS is applied between Drain & Source as Drain to Source terminal is forward biased &
The negative voltage VGS is applied between Gate & Source as Gate to Source terminal is reverse biased.
(i). When we apply voltage VGS=0V:- During this condition, due to another voltage present there (i.e. VDS)
the Drain current starts flowing through the channel. But as n type semiconductor has larger resistance
therefore it causes voltage drop along the channel. And the resulting drain current is called as source
saturation current IDSS (at VGS=0V).
(ii). When we apply small negative voltage VGS:- During this condition, it reverse biases the Gate to
Source junction. Due to this, channel width becomes reducing. As channel width reduces so less number of
electrons can pass through Drain to Source junction. Therefore value of Drain current Id reduces.
(iii). When we apply large negative voltage VGS:- During this condition, it again reverse biases the Gate
to Source junction. Due to this channel width becomes negligible or zero. Therefore value of Drain current
(ID) becomes zero (i.e.ID=0) at larger negative VGS (also known VGS(off)).
Q(33).Draw drain characteristics of JFET ?

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Q(34). Define MOSFET & also state types of MOSFET?.
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) is a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic
signals. There are three types as follows,
(a). Depletion Type MOSFET. (b). Enhancement Type MOSFET. (c). Power MOSFET.
Q(35). Explain/State constructional details & working principle of depletion MOSFET?.
The n channel depletion type MOSFET is as shown in above figure. MOSFET is a four-terminal device with
source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and substrate (SS) terminals, the body (or substrate) of the MOSFET often is
connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal device like other field-effect transistors.
Because these two terminals are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three
terminals appear in electrical diagrams. In this Gate, Source & Substrate are connected to ground. All n type
regions are linked with each other by n channel. Also there is no direct contact between gate terminal & n
channel. Sio2 (silicon dioxide) is used as a insulating material on gate terminal to be insulated from n
channel.
(i). When we apply voltage VGS=0V.
During this condition when VGS=0V, there is another voltage present i.e. VDD is applied between drain &
source. Hence resulting current IDSS flows due to VDD.
(ii). When we apply negative voltage VGS:- During this condition the Gate terminal opposes the electrons
towards p type substrate & attracts the holes from substrate. Hence these electrons & holes recombine
with each other & reduces free electrons available for conduction. Hence as negative voltage VGS increases,
the drain current ID decreases.
(iii). When we apply positive voltage VGS:- During this condition number of additional free electrons
increases through the channel for conduction. Hence as positive voltage VGS increases the resulting drain
current ID also increases very rapidly.

Page13
Q(36).Compare/ write differences between JFET & MOSFET?.
JFET MOSFET
(1). There are two types, (a). P channel JFET (b).
(a). P channel JFET.
(1). There are two types, (a). Depletion type
(b).
(a). Enhancement type.
(2). Gate terminal is not insulated. (2). Gate terminal is insulated.
(3). Drain resistance is lower. (3). Drain resistance is higher.
(4).
(4).
Q(37). Draw symbol & equivalent diagram of UJT (Unipolar Junction Transistor)?.
Q(38). Define ‘η’ of UJT & write its formula?.
‘η’ is said to be intrinsic standoff ratio, ‘η’=RB1/RB1+RB2 at IE=0. Or ‘η’=RB1/RBB at IE=0.
Q(39). Explain/State working principle of UJT?.
With reference to above equivalent circuit diagram of UJT (refer question no. 37). There are two
resistances i.e. RB1 (variable resistance) & RB2 are present. There are mainly two operating conditions.

Page14
(i). When Emitter terminal is open or disconnected:- When we apply the voltage VBB with ‘E’ as open
terminal, then voltage gets divided into RB1 & RB2. Hence by voltage divider rule, Hence voltage across RB1
is given by,
VRB1= RB1*VBB/ RB1+ RB2, but η=RB1/RB1+RB2, therefore VRB1=η*VBB. Where ‘η’ is said to be ‘intrinsic
standoff ratio’. Hence UJT is turned ‘OFF’ during this condition. i.e. voltage across diode becomes zero i.e.
VD=0.
(ii). When Emitter terminal is close or connected:- During this condition voltage ‘VD’ comes into action
so, emitter current (IE) starts flowing, so hence UJT becomes turned ‘ON’ & hence the voltage at which UJT
is turned ‘ON’ known as ‘peak’ voltage & it is given by VP=ηVBB+VD. Therefore finally we can say that for
all values of VD below VP, the UJT becomes turned ‘OFF’ and the resulting diode becomes reverse biased.
And hence the value of emitter current becomes zero i.e. IE=0.
Q(40). Draw V-I characteristics of UJT?.
Q(41). Give/List applications of UJT?.
(a). In pulse generator. (b). In time delay circuit. (c). In oscillators. (d). In automobile ignition circuits.
Q(42). Give/List difference types of triggering devices?.
(a). UJT (b). SCR.
Q(43). Draw the symbol for SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)?.

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Q(44). Draw the characteristics of SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)?.
Q(45). Define (a). Break over voltage, (b). Holding current of SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)?.
(a). Break over voltage:- It is defines as the minimum forward voltage with gate terminal being open,
during this condition SCR is ‘ON’, means it starts conducting.
(b). Holding current:- It is defines as the maximum anode current with gate terminal being open, during
this condition SCR is ‘OFF’ ,means it stops conducting.
Q(46). Explain working principle of SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)?.
The working principle of SCR can be studied using following two conditions.
(i). Operation of SCR without using Gate current:- We have connected positive terminal of battery with
P region anode & negative terminal of battery with N region cathode hence SCR operates in forward bias
mode. And the junctions J1 & J3 are forward bias & Junction J2 is reverse bias. During such condition Gate
terminal is open i.e. disconnected, so hence IG=0.
(ii). Operation of SCR using Gate current:- We have connected positive terminal of battery with P region
anode & negative terminal of battery with N region cathode hence SCR operates in forward bias mode.
During such condition Gate terminal is close i.e. connected, so hence IG starts flowing & it is controlled by
variable resistance RL. The corresponding value of IG is inversely proportional to the break over voltage of
SCR. Hence as value of IG increases break over voltage of SCR decreases i.e. SCR will turn ‘ON’ at lower
value of voltages.

Page16
Q(47). Give/List applications of SCR?.
(a). In inverters. (b). In rectifiers. (c). In automatic alarm. (d). In battery charges. (e). In motor speed
control. (f). In voltage stabilizers.
Q(48). Give/List specifications of SCR?.
(a). Forward break down voltage, (b). Reverse break down voltage, (c). Holding current.
Q(49). State/List the ways/mechanisms through which SCR can be turned ‘ON’?.
(a). By increasing temperature, (b). By increasing gate current, (c). By applying light. (d). By applying high
voltage.
Q(50). State/List the ways/mechanisms through which SCR can be turned ‘OFF’?.
(a). Natural commutation, (b). Forced commutation.
Q(51). Draw constructional circuit & symbol of TRIAC (bidirectional triode SCR)?.
(a). symbol (b). Constructional circuit

Page17
Q(52). Draw & explain V-I characteristics of TRIAC?.
The V-I characteristics of ‘TRIAC’ is as shown below,
MT1 & MT2 are the terminals of TRIAC. For normal condition the positive gate voltage is applied in first
quadrant & negative gate voltage is applied in third quadrant. For TRIAC to be turned ‘ON’ gate current
should be greater, because greater value of gate current results in smaller value of supply voltage at which
TRIAC can be turned ‘ON’.
Q(53). Draw structure & symbol of DIAC?
.
Q(54). Draw V-I characteristics of DIAC?.

Page18
Q(55). Draw the symbol for LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)?.
Q(56). Draw the symbol for photodiode?.
Q(57). Explain construction & operation of photodiode?.
Photodiode is semiconductor device, in this whenever light falls on it then the value of reverse current
increases; it consists of N type germanium material which is enclosed in a metal. Internally there are
depletion region & electron-holes pairs are present. As soon as the photon rays strikes on the P type
germanium material base, it generates electron-holes pairs. The generation of pairs are totally depends on
intensity of photons. These pairs travel towards P-N junction. i.e. electrons are attracted towards positive
terminal of battery & holes are attracted towards negative terminal of battery hence it forms a photo
current there & this photocurrent is directly proportional to light intensity. That means as photocurrent
increases light intensity also increases.
Q(58). Draw characteristics of photodiode?.

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Q(59). Draw symbol of phototransistor?.
Q(60). Explain working/constructional details of phototransistor?.
Phototransistor is also a semiconductor device having two P-N junctions. It has the transparent window
with a lens through which light can passes & travels towards collector-base terminal of transistor. In this
the value of current increases as strength of charge carriers increases due to incidence of light. It generates
output signal of higher range. In this light is allowed to fall on collector-base terminal of transistor. And this
tends to generate the photocurrent.
Q(61). Draw V-I characteristics of Phototransistor?
.
Q(62). Give/List applications of phototransistor?.
(a). In accelerometer, (b). In sensitive relays.

Page20
Q(63). Draw symbol of LED (Light Emitting Diode)?.
Q(64). Explain working/constructional details LED?.
LED is a semiconductor device having single P-N junction which is helpful in converting electric energy into
light energy. It operates opposite to that of photodiode. LED’s are made up of gallium phosphide(GaP) for
generating green light, gallium arsenide(GaAs) for generating infrared radiation & silicon carbide(SiC) for
generating yellow light. When LED operates in forward bias mode then electrons from n region recombine
with holes present in p region. Then electrons may fall from high energy state to lower energy state(i.e.
from conduction band to valence band). This recombination tends to excess generation of energy in the
form of light. This process of LED is also known as ‘electroluminescence’. Hence on this principle LED’s
generates light.
Q(65). Give/List applications of LED’s?.
(a). In calculators, (b). In digital watches, (c). In display boards, (d). In digital electronics circuits.
Q(66). Draw symbol of seven segment display?.

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Q(67). Draw symbol of LCD (Liquid crystal Display)?.
Q(68). Compare/write differences between LED & LCD?.
LED LCD
(a). Power consumption is high. (a). Power consumption is low.
(b). Brightness is very good. (b). Brightness is poor.
(c). Operating temperature is 85°C. (c). Operating temperature is 20°C to 60°C.
(d). Life span in long. (d). Life span in short.
(e). Travelling speed is fast. (e). Travelling speed is slow.
Q(69). Draw diagram of opto-coupler & also state its working principle?.
Opto-couplers are the combination of light source (LED) & detectors (Photodiode) in the same package.
When input pulse goes high, the resulting LED turns ‘ON’ then this LED produces light on photodiode. Due
to this photocurrent also flows through photodiode. As soon as when input pulse goes low the resulting
LED turns ‘OFF’. Hence resulting value of photocurrent also decreases. Hence in Opto-couplers input pulse
is coupled with output pulse. So, opto-couplers are used in isolation processes with good efficiency.
Q(70). What is thermistor & state its types?.
Thermistor is a resistor which is totally depends on temperature. There are two types of thermistors,
(a) NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient), (b). PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient).

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Q(71). What is NTC?.
‘NTC’ stands for Negative Temperature Coefficient. Means type semiconductors materials having negative
temperature coefficient. Hence they are used to measure temperature of the range (-100°C to 320°C).
Following are the types of thermistors.
Q(72). What is PTC?.
‘PTC’ stands for Positive Temperature Coefficient. Means type semiconductors materials having positive
temperature coefficient. Hence they are used to measure temperature of the range (-400°C to 1000°C).
Q(73). Compare/Write differences between NTC/PTC thermistors?.
NTC thermistor PTC thermistor
(a). Thermistors having negative
temperature coefficient.
(a). Thermistors having positive
temperature coefficient.
(b). Operating temperature range (-100°C to
320°C).
(b). Operating temperature range (-400°C to
1000°C).
(c). Sensitivity is good. (c). Sensitivity is excellent.
(d). Used in instrumentation. (d). Used in thermometers.
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Basic Electronics by Er. Swapnil Kaware

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