Aldehydes and ketones contain a carbonyl group with a carbon bonded to an oxygen. They are polar molecules with higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of comparable size. Low molecular weight aldehydes and ketones are soluble in both organic solvents and water, while higher molecular weight ones are soluble in organic solvents. Aldehydes can be oxidized to carboxylic acids due to the hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon, while ketones cannot undergo this reaction. In addition, aldehydes and ketones undergo addition reactions where new groups add to the carbonyl group.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
Aldehydes and ketones are the carbonyl compounds with general formula CnH2nO. Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group and other group is either hydrogen or an alkyl or aryl group (i.e. Aldehyde has one alkyl or aryl group and one of the hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon) with characteristics functional group -CHO.
This document provides information on the nomenclature, structures, and isomerism of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes. It discusses their classification as saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons and how they form homologous series. The key reactions of alkanes and alkenes discussed are substitution, addition, elimination, combustion, hydrogenation, halogenation, hydration, oxidation, and cracking. IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming hydrocarbon structures are also outlined.
This document discusses aldehydes and ketones. It defines aldehydes as carbonyl compounds containing at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl carbon, while ketones contain two carbon groups bonded to the carbonyl carbon. The document covers nomenclature rules for naming aldehydes and ketones based on IUPAC conventions, examples of common aldehydes and ketones, and different types of isomerism exhibited by these compound classes. Physical and chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones are also outlined.
Alkanes are a family of hydrocarbons whose members contain only single carbon-hydrogen bonds. The document discusses the structure, properties, conformations, and reactions of several alkanes including methane, ethane, propane, butane, and higher alkanes. It also covers topics such as torsional strain, Grignard reagents, halogenation reactions, and IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming alkanes.
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with a triple bond between two carbon atoms. Common alkynes include acetylene (C2H2), propyne, butyne, pentyne, etc. Their molecular formulas follow the pattern of CnH2n-2. Alkynes are named based on the number of carbons and whether the chain is straight or branched. They are generally reactive due to the triple bond. Alkynes undergo addition, polymerization, substitution, and combustion reactions. They can also form isomers based on chain structure or carbon position.
This document provides information about aldehydes and ketones, including:
1) Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen, while ketones have no hydrogens bonded to the carbonyl carbon.
2) Carbonyl compounds are more polar than alkanes due to the polar carbonyl group. Aldehydes and ketones can hydrogen bond with water.
3) Aldehydes and ketones undergo oxidation reactions to form carboxylic acids and oxidation, reduction, addition, and condensation reactions that are important for their reactivity.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have the general formula CnH2n. Common properties of alkenes include being unsaturated, less dense than water, and having lower melting and boiling points than alkanes. Alkenes undergo addition reactions where the double bond is broken and new single bonds are formed. They react with hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides, water, and acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution through addition reactions. Polymerization of alkenes forms polymers like polyethene. Alkenes burn with more soot than alkanes due to their higher carbon content.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
Aldehydes and ketones are the carbonyl compounds with general formula CnH2nO. Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group and other group is either hydrogen or an alkyl or aryl group (i.e. Aldehyde has one alkyl or aryl group and one of the hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon) with characteristics functional group -CHO.
This document provides information on the nomenclature, structures, and isomerism of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes. It discusses their classification as saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons and how they form homologous series. The key reactions of alkanes and alkenes discussed are substitution, addition, elimination, combustion, hydrogenation, halogenation, hydration, oxidation, and cracking. IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming hydrocarbon structures are also outlined.
This document discusses aldehydes and ketones. It defines aldehydes as carbonyl compounds containing at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl carbon, while ketones contain two carbon groups bonded to the carbonyl carbon. The document covers nomenclature rules for naming aldehydes and ketones based on IUPAC conventions, examples of common aldehydes and ketones, and different types of isomerism exhibited by these compound classes. Physical and chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones are also outlined.
Alkanes are a family of hydrocarbons whose members contain only single carbon-hydrogen bonds. The document discusses the structure, properties, conformations, and reactions of several alkanes including methane, ethane, propane, butane, and higher alkanes. It also covers topics such as torsional strain, Grignard reagents, halogenation reactions, and IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming alkanes.
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with a triple bond between two carbon atoms. Common alkynes include acetylene (C2H2), propyne, butyne, pentyne, etc. Their molecular formulas follow the pattern of CnH2n-2. Alkynes are named based on the number of carbons and whether the chain is straight or branched. They are generally reactive due to the triple bond. Alkynes undergo addition, polymerization, substitution, and combustion reactions. They can also form isomers based on chain structure or carbon position.
This document provides information about aldehydes and ketones, including:
1) Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen, while ketones have no hydrogens bonded to the carbonyl carbon.
2) Carbonyl compounds are more polar than alkanes due to the polar carbonyl group. Aldehydes and ketones can hydrogen bond with water.
3) Aldehydes and ketones undergo oxidation reactions to form carboxylic acids and oxidation, reduction, addition, and condensation reactions that are important for their reactivity.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have the general formula CnH2n. Common properties of alkenes include being unsaturated, less dense than water, and having lower melting and boiling points than alkanes. Alkenes undergo addition reactions where the double bond is broken and new single bonds are formed. They react with hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides, water, and acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution through addition reactions. Polymerization of alkenes forms polymers like polyethene. Alkenes burn with more soot than alkanes due to their higher carbon content.
The document provides an overview of aldehydes, including:
- Nomenclature of aldehydes using IUPAC and common names.
- Physical properties such as boiling points and solubility due to the polar carbonyl group.
- Preparation methods including oxidation of primary alcohols and reduction of acid chlorides.
- Reactions including oxidation to carboxylic acids, reduction to alcohols, nucleophilic addition with HCN or Grignard reagents, and condensation reactions with ammonia derivatives.
- Specific reactions are discussed in more detail such as cyanohydrin formation, aldol condensation, and Cannizzaro disproportionation.
This chapter discusses alcohols, which are organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group. It covers the IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming alcohols, including cyclic alcohols, alcohols containing multiple functional groups, diols, and phenols. The chapter also discusses the classification, physical properties, acidity, and preparation of alcohols. Alcohols can be prepared through Grignard synthesis or hydrolysis of alkyl halides. Common alcohols include ethanol, used in alcoholic beverages, and methanol, an important industrial solvent.
1) The document discusses the nomenclature, properties, preparation, and reactions of alcohols. It provides IUPAC rules for naming alcohols and describes substitutive and eliminative reactions.
2) Alcohols are prepared through Grignard reactions with carbonyl compounds, hydrolysis of alkyl halides, and reduction of carbonyls with lithium aluminum hydride or sodium borohydride.
3) Alcohols undergo oxidation, esterification, halogenation, dehydration, and ether formation reactions. Primary alcohols react faster than secondary or tertiary alcohols in substitution and elimination reactions.
This document discusses the nomenclature, physical properties, preparation, and reactions of carboxylic acids. It begins by defining carboxylic acids and how they are classified. Rules of IUPAC nomenclature for aliphatic, cyclic, and aromatic carboxylic acids are provided. Key physical properties like solubility and boiling point are attributed to hydrogen bonding. Carboxylic acids are described as stronger acids than alcohols or phenols due to resonance stabilization of the conjugate base. Common methods for preparing carboxylic acids include oxidation reactions and hydrolysis of nitriles. Characteristic reactions include forming salts with bases, and generating acid derivatives like esters, acid chlorides, anhydrides, and am
The document provides information about organic chemistry compounds including their structures, functional groups, and naming conventions. It discusses the basic components of organic molecules like carbon and hydrogen and how carbon can form single, double, and triple bonds. It also summarizes different types of organic compounds such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and compounds containing common functional groups. Examples are given to illustrate concepts like structural isomers, chiral carbons, and cis/trans isomers.
Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group with at least one hydrogen attached to the carbonyl carbon. They are intermediate in properties between alcohols and alkanes, with higher boiling points than alkanes due to dipole-dipole interactions. Aldehydes are readily oxidized to carboxylic acids and reduced to primary alcohols. They react with alcohols to form hemiacetals and acetals through addition reactions. Hemiacetals contain both a hydroxyl and alkoxy group bonded to the same carbon.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have lower melting and boiling points than alkanes due to weaker intermolecular forces. The number of carbons determines an alkene's name and formula. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, combustion reactions, polymerization reactions, and can be used to test for double bonds. They differ from alkanes in bonding, reactivity and ability to cause soot during combustion. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas, resulting in different physical but same chemical properties.
Alcohols are compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) group. They are named based on the carbon chain and position of the hydroxyl group. Alcohols can be produced through fermentation of sugars by yeast or through hydration of alkenes with steam. They have low boiling points, are colorless and volatile. Alcohols can undergo combustion, oxidation, and dehydration reactions. Ethanol is used as a fuel and solvent, while alcohols in general have industrial and medical uses.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
This document provides an overview of alkanes, including their structure, naming conventions, properties, and sources. It defines hydrocarbons and alkanes. Alkanes contain only single carbon-carbon bonds. Constitutional isomers are discussed. Naming conventions for alkanes include prefixes for carbon numbers and suffixes like -ane for straight chains or naming substituents on branches. Cycloalkanes are named similarly with the prefix cyclo-. Physical properties like boiling points increasing with molecular weight are covered. Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water. Natural sources of hydrocarbons include natural gas and petroleum.
This is a report about Aldehydes. The content of this slideshow are as follows: What is an aldehyde, How to name aldehydes with IUPAC Nomenclature and Common Names, The Physical Properties of Aldehydes, and the examples of aldehyde and its uses. The main objective of this report is to widen the knowledge of the readers/learners concerning of the stated topic so that they can further understand the concept of aldehydes.
Report made by: Students of Sogod National High School STEM 9-Newton
Kyla Krystelle Salva
Krishia Belle Cambalon
Marycris Felicilda
1. Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds that contain a carbonyl group. Their general formulas are RCHO and RCOR' respectively.
2. They undergo several characteristic reactions including oxidation, reduction, addition reactions, condensation reactions, and substitution reactions. Common reactions include hydrate formation, addition of Grignard reagents, and cyanohydrin formation.
3. Due to the polarity of the carbonyl group, aldehydes and ketones exhibit properties between nonpolar alkanes and polar alcohols such as higher boiling points and solubility. They also undergo nucleophilic addition reactions at the carbonyl carbon.
This document summarizes reactions of alcohols including oxidation, substitution, reduction, dehydration, and other reactions. It discusses oxidation of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols using various reagents like PCC and chromium reagents. It also covers substitution reactions using halides, tosylates, and thionyl chloride. Dehydration to alkenes and ether formation are discussed. Unique reactions of diols like pinacol rearrangement and periodate cleavage are presented. Esterification and phosphate ester synthesis are also summarized.
1. The chapter introduces organic chemistry and the different functional groups that classify organic compounds.
2. It describes IUPAC nomenclature rules for systematically naming organic structures and explains how to identify substituents.
3. The chapter covers different types of isomerism including structural, stereoisomers, and optical isomers that can exist.
This document provides information about alcohols including their nomenclature, classification, properties, preparation methods, and important examples. Alcohols are defined as compounds with a hydroxyl group attached to a saturated carbon. They are named using IUPAC nomenclature by identifying the carbon chain and hydroxyl group position. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the carbons bonded to the hydroxyl carbon. Their properties include higher boiling points than alkanes and solubility in water. Common preparation methods include hydration of alkenes, addition to carbonyl groups, and reduction of carboxylic acids. Important alcohols include methanol, ethanol, glycerol
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry. It discusses the structural representation of organic compounds including Lewis structures, condensed formulas, and bond line drawings. It also describes three-dimensional representations using wedge and dash notation. Additionally, it covers the classification of organic compounds into acyclic, alicyclic, and aromatic groups. The document discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules and naming conventions for functional groups, hydrocarbons, and cyclic compounds. It also touches on isomerism, reaction mechanisms, and common purification methods like crystallization, distillation, and extraction.
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde.
Alkynes can be prepared through several methods:
1. From calcium carbide by reacting calcium carbide with water to produce acetylene.
2. From vicinal dihalides by treating them with alcoholic potassium hydroxide to undergo dehydrohalogenation and form alkyne.
3. Alkynes readily react with hydrogen in the presence of catalysts like nickel, platinum or palladium through a reaction called hydrogenation.
This compound is 2-methylbut-1-yne.
The parent chain is a 4-carbon chain containing the triple bond. Following IUPAC nomenclature rules for alkynes:
1) The parent name is butyne since it is a 4-carbon chain with the triple bond.
2) The carbon atoms of the triple bond get the lowest possible numbers, which is 1.
3) There is a methyl substituent (CH3 group) attached to the #2 carbon.
4) Substituents are named as prefixes and their locations denoted by a number.
Therefore, the full IUPAC name for this unsaturated hydrocarbon is 2-methylbut-1
Ethers are organic compounds that contain an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms by single bonds. Common examples include diethyl ether and anisole. Ethers have higher boiling points than alkanes of similar molecular mass due to the oxygen atom. They are also more soluble in water than alkanes but have lower boiling points than alcohols of similar mass due to the lack of hydrogen bonding. Important properties of ethers include being flammable and reacting slowly with oxygen in air to form unstable peroxides. Cyclic ethers exist such as ethylene oxide, tetrahydrofuran, furan, and pyran.
This chapter discusses carbonyl compounds, including aldehydes and ketones. It covers nomenclature, reactivity, and reactions of carbonyl compounds. Specifically, it describes how aldehydes are more reactive than ketones due to increased partial positive charge and steric accessibility. It also summarizes key reactions such as addition, reduction, substitution involving nucleophiles, protecting groups, and stereochemistry of additions.
Aldehydes and ketones are carbonyl compounds that contain a carbon-oxygen double bond. Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen, while ketones do not contain any hydrogens bonded to the carbonyl carbon. Carbonyl compounds are more polar than alkanes due to the electronegative oxygen, allowing them to hydrogen bond. Common reactions of aldehydes and ketones include oxidation, reduction, and addition reactions. Oxidation of aldehydes forms carboxylic acids, while ketones cannot be oxidized further. Reduction adds hydrogen, converting aldehydes to primary alcohols and ketones to secondary alcohols. Addition reactions with alcoh
The document provides an overview of aldehydes, including:
- Nomenclature of aldehydes using IUPAC and common names.
- Physical properties such as boiling points and solubility due to the polar carbonyl group.
- Preparation methods including oxidation of primary alcohols and reduction of acid chlorides.
- Reactions including oxidation to carboxylic acids, reduction to alcohols, nucleophilic addition with HCN or Grignard reagents, and condensation reactions with ammonia derivatives.
- Specific reactions are discussed in more detail such as cyanohydrin formation, aldol condensation, and Cannizzaro disproportionation.
This chapter discusses alcohols, which are organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group. It covers the IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming alcohols, including cyclic alcohols, alcohols containing multiple functional groups, diols, and phenols. The chapter also discusses the classification, physical properties, acidity, and preparation of alcohols. Alcohols can be prepared through Grignard synthesis or hydrolysis of alkyl halides. Common alcohols include ethanol, used in alcoholic beverages, and methanol, an important industrial solvent.
1) The document discusses the nomenclature, properties, preparation, and reactions of alcohols. It provides IUPAC rules for naming alcohols and describes substitutive and eliminative reactions.
2) Alcohols are prepared through Grignard reactions with carbonyl compounds, hydrolysis of alkyl halides, and reduction of carbonyls with lithium aluminum hydride or sodium borohydride.
3) Alcohols undergo oxidation, esterification, halogenation, dehydration, and ether formation reactions. Primary alcohols react faster than secondary or tertiary alcohols in substitution and elimination reactions.
This document discusses the nomenclature, physical properties, preparation, and reactions of carboxylic acids. It begins by defining carboxylic acids and how they are classified. Rules of IUPAC nomenclature for aliphatic, cyclic, and aromatic carboxylic acids are provided. Key physical properties like solubility and boiling point are attributed to hydrogen bonding. Carboxylic acids are described as stronger acids than alcohols or phenols due to resonance stabilization of the conjugate base. Common methods for preparing carboxylic acids include oxidation reactions and hydrolysis of nitriles. Characteristic reactions include forming salts with bases, and generating acid derivatives like esters, acid chlorides, anhydrides, and am
The document provides information about organic chemistry compounds including their structures, functional groups, and naming conventions. It discusses the basic components of organic molecules like carbon and hydrogen and how carbon can form single, double, and triple bonds. It also summarizes different types of organic compounds such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and compounds containing common functional groups. Examples are given to illustrate concepts like structural isomers, chiral carbons, and cis/trans isomers.
Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group with at least one hydrogen attached to the carbonyl carbon. They are intermediate in properties between alcohols and alkanes, with higher boiling points than alkanes due to dipole-dipole interactions. Aldehydes are readily oxidized to carboxylic acids and reduced to primary alcohols. They react with alcohols to form hemiacetals and acetals through addition reactions. Hemiacetals contain both a hydroxyl and alkoxy group bonded to the same carbon.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have lower melting and boiling points than alkanes due to weaker intermolecular forces. The number of carbons determines an alkene's name and formula. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, combustion reactions, polymerization reactions, and can be used to test for double bonds. They differ from alkanes in bonding, reactivity and ability to cause soot during combustion. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas, resulting in different physical but same chemical properties.
Alcohols are compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) group. They are named based on the carbon chain and position of the hydroxyl group. Alcohols can be produced through fermentation of sugars by yeast or through hydration of alkenes with steam. They have low boiling points, are colorless and volatile. Alcohols can undergo combustion, oxidation, and dehydration reactions. Ethanol is used as a fuel and solvent, while alcohols in general have industrial and medical uses.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
This document provides an overview of alkanes, including their structure, naming conventions, properties, and sources. It defines hydrocarbons and alkanes. Alkanes contain only single carbon-carbon bonds. Constitutional isomers are discussed. Naming conventions for alkanes include prefixes for carbon numbers and suffixes like -ane for straight chains or naming substituents on branches. Cycloalkanes are named similarly with the prefix cyclo-. Physical properties like boiling points increasing with molecular weight are covered. Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water. Natural sources of hydrocarbons include natural gas and petroleum.
This is a report about Aldehydes. The content of this slideshow are as follows: What is an aldehyde, How to name aldehydes with IUPAC Nomenclature and Common Names, The Physical Properties of Aldehydes, and the examples of aldehyde and its uses. The main objective of this report is to widen the knowledge of the readers/learners concerning of the stated topic so that they can further understand the concept of aldehydes.
Report made by: Students of Sogod National High School STEM 9-Newton
Kyla Krystelle Salva
Krishia Belle Cambalon
Marycris Felicilda
1. Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds that contain a carbonyl group. Their general formulas are RCHO and RCOR' respectively.
2. They undergo several characteristic reactions including oxidation, reduction, addition reactions, condensation reactions, and substitution reactions. Common reactions include hydrate formation, addition of Grignard reagents, and cyanohydrin formation.
3. Due to the polarity of the carbonyl group, aldehydes and ketones exhibit properties between nonpolar alkanes and polar alcohols such as higher boiling points and solubility. They also undergo nucleophilic addition reactions at the carbonyl carbon.
This document summarizes reactions of alcohols including oxidation, substitution, reduction, dehydration, and other reactions. It discusses oxidation of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols using various reagents like PCC and chromium reagents. It also covers substitution reactions using halides, tosylates, and thionyl chloride. Dehydration to alkenes and ether formation are discussed. Unique reactions of diols like pinacol rearrangement and periodate cleavage are presented. Esterification and phosphate ester synthesis are also summarized.
1. The chapter introduces organic chemistry and the different functional groups that classify organic compounds.
2. It describes IUPAC nomenclature rules for systematically naming organic structures and explains how to identify substituents.
3. The chapter covers different types of isomerism including structural, stereoisomers, and optical isomers that can exist.
This document provides information about alcohols including their nomenclature, classification, properties, preparation methods, and important examples. Alcohols are defined as compounds with a hydroxyl group attached to a saturated carbon. They are named using IUPAC nomenclature by identifying the carbon chain and hydroxyl group position. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the carbons bonded to the hydroxyl carbon. Their properties include higher boiling points than alkanes and solubility in water. Common preparation methods include hydration of alkenes, addition to carbonyl groups, and reduction of carboxylic acids. Important alcohols include methanol, ethanol, glycerol
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry. It discusses the structural representation of organic compounds including Lewis structures, condensed formulas, and bond line drawings. It also describes three-dimensional representations using wedge and dash notation. Additionally, it covers the classification of organic compounds into acyclic, alicyclic, and aromatic groups. The document discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules and naming conventions for functional groups, hydrocarbons, and cyclic compounds. It also touches on isomerism, reaction mechanisms, and common purification methods like crystallization, distillation, and extraction.
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde.
Alkynes can be prepared through several methods:
1. From calcium carbide by reacting calcium carbide with water to produce acetylene.
2. From vicinal dihalides by treating them with alcoholic potassium hydroxide to undergo dehydrohalogenation and form alkyne.
3. Alkynes readily react with hydrogen in the presence of catalysts like nickel, platinum or palladium through a reaction called hydrogenation.
This compound is 2-methylbut-1-yne.
The parent chain is a 4-carbon chain containing the triple bond. Following IUPAC nomenclature rules for alkynes:
1) The parent name is butyne since it is a 4-carbon chain with the triple bond.
2) The carbon atoms of the triple bond get the lowest possible numbers, which is 1.
3) There is a methyl substituent (CH3 group) attached to the #2 carbon.
4) Substituents are named as prefixes and their locations denoted by a number.
Therefore, the full IUPAC name for this unsaturated hydrocarbon is 2-methylbut-1
Ethers are organic compounds that contain an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms by single bonds. Common examples include diethyl ether and anisole. Ethers have higher boiling points than alkanes of similar molecular mass due to the oxygen atom. They are also more soluble in water than alkanes but have lower boiling points than alcohols of similar mass due to the lack of hydrogen bonding. Important properties of ethers include being flammable and reacting slowly with oxygen in air to form unstable peroxides. Cyclic ethers exist such as ethylene oxide, tetrahydrofuran, furan, and pyran.
This chapter discusses carbonyl compounds, including aldehydes and ketones. It covers nomenclature, reactivity, and reactions of carbonyl compounds. Specifically, it describes how aldehydes are more reactive than ketones due to increased partial positive charge and steric accessibility. It also summarizes key reactions such as addition, reduction, substitution involving nucleophiles, protecting groups, and stereochemistry of additions.
Aldehydes and ketones are carbonyl compounds that contain a carbon-oxygen double bond. Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen, while ketones do not contain any hydrogens bonded to the carbonyl carbon. Carbonyl compounds are more polar than alkanes due to the electronegative oxygen, allowing them to hydrogen bond. Common reactions of aldehydes and ketones include oxidation, reduction, and addition reactions. Oxidation of aldehydes forms carboxylic acids, while ketones cannot be oxidized further. Reduction adds hydrogen, converting aldehydes to primary alcohols and ketones to secondary alcohols. Addition reactions with alcoh
This document discusses aldehydes and ketones. Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group bonded to a hydrogen atom, while ketones contain a carbonyl group bonded between two carbon groups. The document provides IUPAC and common naming conventions for aldehydes and ketones. Examples are given of aldehydes and ketones that provide flavors or act as hormones. Learning checks provide practice identifying and naming aldehydes and ketones, as well as drawing their structural formulas.
The document summarizes various reactions of aldehydes and ketones. It describes how aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions, with the nucleophile attacking the carbonyl carbon. This forms an alkoxide intermediate which gives an alcohol upon protonation. It also discusses the relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones, hydrate and cyanohydrin formation, imine formation, oxidation and reductions of carbonyl compounds, acetal formation, and the Wittig reaction.
1) The document summarizes key concepts about ketones and aldehydes from an organic chemistry textbook chapter, including their structures, nomenclature, physical properties, reactions, and industrial uses.
2) Methods of synthesizing ketones and aldehydes are discussed, including oxidation of alcohols, Friedel-Crafts acylation, and reactions of nitriles, acid chlorides, and carboxylic acids.
3) Common reactions of ketones and aldehydes described include nucleophilic addition, hydration, imine and acetal formation, reductions, and oxidations.
Aldehydes are organic compounds containing a carbonyl group with the formula -CHO. They consist of a carbon double bonded to oxygen and single bonded to hydrogen and an R group. Common aldehydes include formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and benzaldehyde. Aldehydes have medical uses as disinfectants and for treating cardiovascular disease. Industrially, they are used as food flavorings, solvents, and in perfumes. Breathing or contacting aldehydes can irritate lungs, skin, and eyes. Repeated exposure may cause damage to organs and cancer. Aldehydes are also formed endogenously during lipid peroxidation and metabolism.
This document summarizes the key structures and functions of the human sense organs. It describes the four main types of stimuli that can trigger sensory responses, then details each of the main senses - touch, temperature, pain, proprioception, taste, smell, hearing, equilibrium, and vision. For each sense, it outlines the receptors, sensory pathways, and role in perceiving stimuli from the external and internal environments.
The document discusses the nomenclature, properties, and synthesis of aldehydes and ketones. It outlines three common syntheses for benzaldehyde: 1) oxidation of benzyl alcohol, 2) oxidation of toluene, 3) reduction of benzoyl chloride. It also outlines three syntheses for benzophenone: 1) oxidation of benzhydrol, 2) Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene and benzoyl chloride, 3) reaction of benzoyl chloride with diphenylcuprate. Different syntheses are outlined for six example compounds.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons whose carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2. The first ten alkanes are methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, nonane and decane. Alkanes undergo combustion reactions and halogenation reactions when exposed to halogens like chlorine in the presence of UV light or heat. Haloalkanes are named according to IUPAC rules by identifying the parent alkane, halogen prefix, and halogen position number.
This document provides information on the nomenclature, physical properties, synthesis, and characteristic reactions of ketones and aldehydes. It begins with the general structures of ketones and aldehydes and discusses their IUPAC and common nomenclature. It then covers the physical properties and boiling points of ketones and aldehydes compared to other organic compounds. The document concludes with sections on the synthesis of ketones and aldehydes through various reactions like oxidation, hydration, and additions. It also outlines characteristic reactions such as reductions, oxidations, and nucleophilic additions.
This document provides guidelines for naming aldehydes and ketones based on their structure. It explains that the name is comprised of a prefix, root, and ending. The prefix indicates any substituents and their location. The root is based on the longest carbon chain containing the carbonyl group. The ending "-al" denotes an aldehyde, while "-one" denotes a ketone. It provides examples of applying these rules to name different aldehydes and ketones based on their structure diagrams.
Ethers are a class of organic compounds containing an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, following the general formula R-O-R'. Ethers have relatively low polarity and reactivity compared to similar alcohols and alkenes. Common reactions of ethers include forming peroxides in the presence of oxygen and dehydration of alcohols to form ethers. Historically, ether was first used as a general anesthetic for surgery in the 1840s and is still applied as a colorless liquid that causes unconsciousness.
The document describes the objective of synthesizing α,β-unsaturated ketones from aldehydes and ketones using aldol condensation. Specifically, it aims to purify the product through recrystallization and identify purity using TLC and melting point analysis. The document then discusses dibenzalacetone and its various biological activities. It provides details on the experimental procedure for aldol condensation including reagents, reaction conditions, product isolation and purification techniques like recrystallization, TLC analysis and melting point determination. Results of the reaction with different substrates are presented in tables listing product characteristics and yields. IR spectroscopy is used to analyze functional groups in the purified products.
The document summarizes reactions of ketones and their applications. It discusses how ketones are formed by oxidation of secondary alcohols or by dry distillation of calcium salts of carboxylic acids. It then outlines several reactions of ketones including their addition reactions with hydroxylamine to form oximes, hydrazine to form hydrazones, Grignard reagents to form alcohols, and HCN to form cyanohydrins. Applications of products from these reactions include use in oil-based paints, measuring low molecular weight aldehydes and ketones, and in cosmetics and sun damage treatment.
Tang 07 carboxylic acids, amines, & thiols 2015mrtangextrahelp
This document discusses carboxylic acids, amines, and thiols. It provides information on their IUPAC naming systems, properties, and examples of naming structures for each functional group. For carboxylic acids, it describes how the "-oic acid" suffix is used in IUPAC naming and how they have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons. For amines, it explains how the "amine" suffix is used and that tertiary amines have lower melting/boiling points than primary or secondary amines. Thiols contain a sulfhydryl group and have strong odors, with the "thiol" suffix added in IUPAC naming.
Functional groups and chemical reactions in foodjiachi94
This document discusses functional groups and chemical reactions that are commonly found in foods. It describes the hydroxyl, amino, aldehyde, and carboxyl functional groups and provides examples of foods that contain each one. Common enzymatic reactions mentioned are hydrolysis and oxidation/reduction. A non-enzymatic reaction discussed is the Maillard reaction, which is responsible for browning in cooked foods. A list of references is included at the end.
The document discusses alcohols and phenols. It defines alcohols as compounds containing a hydroxyl group bonded to a carbon atom. Methanol is the simplest alcohol. Phenols also contain a hydroxyl group, but bonded to an aromatic carbon. The document outlines various chemical and physical properties of alcohols and phenols, including their uses, reactivity with oxidizing agents and acids, and solubility differences. Hazards of some alcohols like ethanol are also mentioned.
Alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones are organic compounds that contain hydroxyl (-OH), aldehyde (-CHO), or ketone (>C=O) functional groups. The IUPAC naming system is used to systematically name these compounds based on their carbon chain length and functional group position. Alcohols can be primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to a primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon. Aldehydes and ketones differ in that aldehydes have the carbonyl group at the end of the carbon chain while ketones have it within the chain. Alcohols have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons due to hydrogen bonding between hydroxy
This chapter discusses the structure, properties, and synthesis of alkenes. Key points include:
- Alkenes contain a pi bond between two carbons as the functional group. This pi bond is more reactive than a sigma bond.
- Common methods for alkene synthesis are E2 elimination of hydrogen halides, E1 elimination of hydrogen halides, removal of vicinal dibromides, and dehydration of alcohols.
- Alkene stability is affected by substitution - more substituted alkenes are more stable. Cis isomers are generally more stable than trans.
- IUPAC nomenclature is used to systematically name alkenes based on
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds that contain a carbonyl functional group. Aldehydes have one alkyl group attached to the carbonyl carbon, giving the general formula R-CHO, while ketones have two alkyl groups attached, with the general formula R-C(O)-R. Common aldehydes and ketones were described. Aldehydes and ketones have polar carbonyl groups that influence their physical and chemical properties, such as higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of similar molar mass due to intermolecular interactions. Their reactivity is also due to the polar carbonyl group, allowing them to react with reagents like hydrocyanic acid, sodium bisulfite, Grignard reagents and al
This document is a chemistry project on aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids. It includes a certificate verifying completion, acknowledgements, index, and 5 sections discussing topics like nomenclature, preparation methods, reactions, and inductive effects. The project was assigned by a teacher and completed by a 12th grade student to fulfill an academic requirement. It provides an overview of key concepts regarding these functional groups in an educational format.
This document provides information about carbonyl compounds, specifically aldehydes and ketones. It discusses their IUPAC nomenclature, methods of preparation including oxidation of alcohols and oxidative cleavage of alkenes, and physical and chemical properties. The chemical reactions covered include nucleophilic addition, reduction, condensation, and oxidation reactions. Examples of important aldehydes and ketones are also mentioned along with their structures and uses.
The document discusses alcohols, including their structure, properties, nomenclature, methods of preparation, and reactions. Some key points:
1. Alcohols contain a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a saturated carbon atom. They can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on if the -OH group is attached to a primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon.
2. Common physical properties of alcohols include being colorless liquids with characteristic smells, and higher boiling points than alkanes due to hydrogen bonding between -OH groups.
3. Alcohols can be prepared through hydrolysis of alkyl halides, alkenes,
The document summarizes key information about alcohols, phenols, thiols, and ethers from Chapter 12. It discusses the structures, properties, and reactions of these functional groups. Alcohols contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) and are polar due to hydrogen bonding. Their solubility decreases with increasing carbon chain length. Alcohols can be prepared by hydration of alkenes or hydrogenation of carbonyl groups. They undergo oxidation, dehydration, and substitution reactions. Phenols contain a hydroxyl group attached to an aromatic ring. Ethers have an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl groups instead of a hydroxyl group and alkyl group. Thiols are analogous to alco
Alcohol, phenol, and ether are organic compounds that play significant roles in both natural processes and synthetic chemistry. In the NCERT Class 12 Chemistry curriculum, the study of these compounds forms a crucial part of the organic chemistry syllabus. This essay aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of alcohol, phenol, and ether, as outlined in the NCERT textbooks. Beginning with fundamental concepts such as nomenclature and classification, we will delve into the structural properties, chemical reactivity, synthesis methods, and practical applications of these compounds. Additionally, we will explore advanced topics such as reactions mechanisms, stereochemistry, and spectroscopic analysis, thereby offering a holistic understanding of alcohol, phenol, and ether chemistry.
Introduction:
Alcohol, phenol, and ether represent a diverse group of organic compounds characterized by the presence of hydroxyl (–OH) and/or ether (–O–) functional groups. These compounds exhibit unique chemical properties and find wide-ranging applications in industry, medicine, and everyday life. The NCERT Class 12 Chemistry curriculum provides students with a systematic framework for understanding the structure, properties, and reactions of alcohols, phenols, and ethers. This essay aims to elucidate the key concepts covered in this curriculum, thereby fostering a deeper appreciation for the chemistry of these important functional groups.
I. Basic Concepts and Nomenclature:
A. Definition and Classification of Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
B. IUPAC Nomenclature Rules and Examples
C. Structural Isomerism and Functional Group Isomerism
II. Structure and Bonding:
A. Molecular Structure of Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
B. Intermolecular Forces: Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohols and Phenols
C. Dipole-Dipole Interactions in Ethers
III. Chemical Properties and Reactivity:
A. Acid-Base Behavior: Alcohols and Phenols as Weak Acids
B. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions: SN1 and SN2 Mechanisms
C. Esterification and Ether Cleavage Reactions
D. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions: Preparation of Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
IV. Synthetic Methods:
A. Laboratory Preparation of Alcohols: Hydration of Alkenes, Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones
B. Industrial Synthesis of Phenol: Cumene Process
C. Williamson Ether Synthesis and Other Methods for Ether Preparation
V. Stereochemistry of Alcohols and Ethers:
A. Chirality and Enantiomerism
B. Optical Activity and Chiral Centers in Alcohols
C. Conformational Isomerism in Ethers
VI. Spectroscopic Analysis:
A. IR Spectroscopy: Characteristic Peaks for Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
B. NMR Spectroscopy: Chemical Shifts and Signal Splitting Patterns
C. Mass Spectrometry: Fragmentation Patterns and Molecular Weight Determination
VII. Applications and Industrial Importance:
A. Alcohol as Solvents and Antiseptics
B. Phenol in the Production of Polymers and Pharmaceuticals
C. Ethers as Solvents and Anesthetic Agents
This document provides information on various functional groups that are important in polymers used to make synthetic fibers. It discusses 10 functional groups - alcohol, ether, aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, ester, amine, carbonyl, hydroxyl, and carboxyl. For each group, it provides a definition and description of their properties and uses, such as how they contribute to strength, toughness, crystallinity or ability to absorb moisture in fibers.
1. The document discusses various types of organic compounds containing alcohol or thiol functional groups, including their nomenclature, properties, and reactions.
2. It provides details on naming and properties of alcohols, ethers, and thiols according to IUPAC rules. Common alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and glycerol are described along with their uses.
3. Reactions of alcohols, ethers, and thiols are summarized, including oxidation, dehydration, halogenation, and combustion. Ethers are noted to be flammable and react slowly with oxygen. Thiols readily form disulfides through oxidation.
CARBONYL COMPOUNDS.pptx classifications and propertiesNamwanjeLeonia
The document describes carbonyl compounds and was presented by Group 3 and 4. It defines carbonyl compounds as organic compounds containing a carbonyl functional group. The two main classes are aldehydes and ketones. The document discusses their structures, nomenclature, properties, methods of preparation, and characteristic reactions including nucleophilic addition, condensation, oxidation, and reduction reactions. Representative equations are provided to illustrate key reaction types.
Chapter 22ORGANIC AND BIOLOGICAL MOLECULASalfredo395251
This document provides an overview of organic and biological molecules, including:
- Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds, while biochemistry is the study of living things' chemistry.
- Hydrocarbons include saturated alkanes and unsaturated alkenes/alkynes, which differ in their carbon bonding.
- Polymers are large molecules made of repeating monomer units joined by covalent bonds. Examples include synthetic polymers like polyethylene and nylon, as well as natural polymers like proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
- Key biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids are made of amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides, respectively, and their structures enable important
This document provides an overview of organic and biological molecules, including:
- Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds, while biochemistry is the study of living things.
- Hydrocarbons can be saturated (alkanes), unsaturated (alkenes and alkynes), aromatic, or derivatives containing functional groups.
- Polymers are large molecules made of repeating monomer units and include synthetic polymers like polyethylene as well as natural polymers like proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
- Proteins consist of amino acid monomers and have primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of structure determined by bonding interactions. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information
The document discusses the classification, nomenclature, preparation, properties and reactions of alcohols. Alcohols can be classified based on the number of hydroxyl groups and the carbon they are attached to. The IUPAC system names alcohols based on the parent chain and hydroxyl position. Alcohols can be prepared from alkyl halides, alkenes, carbonyl compounds and by reduction. They have higher boiling points than other organic compounds due to hydrogen bonding. Primary alcohols undergo SN2 reactions while tertiary undergo SN1. Oxidation of primary alcohols yields aldehydes and secondary yields ketones.
This document summarizes a session on carboxylic acid derivatives, specifically aldehydes and ketones. It discusses the structure, nomenclature, properties, and reactivity of these compounds. Key points include that aldehydes are more reactive than ketones due to less steric hindrance, and that substituents can affect the acidity and reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives. The document provides examples to illustrate concepts discussed.
The document is a chapter menu for organic chemistry covering substituted hydrocarbons and their reactions. It outlines 5 main sections that discuss alkyl and aryl halides, alcohols/ethers/amines, carbonyl compounds, other organic reactions, and polymers. Each section defines functional groups, draws structures, and discusses properties and reactions for different compound classes.
This chapter outline summarizes key topics in Chapter 22 on alcohols, ethers, phenols, and thiols. It introduces functional groups and covers the classification, naming, physical properties and chemical reactions of alcohols. Specific reactions discussed include protonation, deprotonation, oxidation, dehydration, esterification, and hydrolysis. Secondary alcohols undergo oxidation to form ketones while primary alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes and then carboxylic acids. Dehydration of alcohols forms alkenes and ethers. Esterification produces esters from alcohols and carboxylic acids.
This document provides an introduction to the chemistry of alcohols. It begins with classifying alcohols as either aliphatic or aromatic based on whether the OH group is attached to the carbon chain or ring. Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols are distinguished based on the number of carbon groups attached to the carbon with the OH group. Key chemical properties discussed include hydrogen bonding leading to higher boiling points than alkanes, elimination reactions producing alkenes, and oxidation reactions that convert primary alcohols to aldehydes and aldehydes to carboxylic acids or convert secondary alcohols to ketones. Tertiary alcohols are resistant to oxidation due to lacking
1. The document discusses the chemical properties of hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes. It describes different types of chemical reactions such as combustion, addition, substitution, bromination, hydrogenation, and hydration.
2. Specific reactions are discussed including the combustion of hydrocarbons producing carbon dioxide and water. Addition reactions like bromination, hydrogenation, and hydration that involve adding atoms to alkenes and alkynes are also covered.
3. Examples are provided to illustrate combustion reactions, bromination of cyclohexene, hydrogenation of sunflower oil to produce solid fats, and the hydration of symmetrical and asymmetrical alkenes following Markovnik
This document discusses esters in organic chemistry. It defines esters as compounds derived from acids where a hydroxyl group is replaced by an alkoxy group. Esters are usually derived from carboxylic acids and alcohols. The document covers ester nomenclature, structure, bonding, physical properties, preparation methods such as esterification, and common reactions like hydrolysis and reduction.
Class 10,subject-chemistry,date,1-11-21,medium-english, chapter-carbon and it...PavithraT30
Vista's Learning is one of the leading e-learning platforms shaping the future of the country's education sector.
With the latest AR technology in the web application and personalized methods of learning concepts, Vista's Learning offers a wide variety of features - live classes, pre-recorded classes covering state boards and CBSE, one-on-one coaching, social media and many more. Classes are provided for K-12 and in different regional languages to understand the concepts even better. Languages include - English, Hindi, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Tamil.
https://v-learning.in/live-course/1854/chemistry-carbon-and-its-compoundsprobable-questions-for-exam-kseeb-cbse-vistas-learning
Embracing Deep Variability For Reproducibility and Replicability
Abstract: Reproducibility (aka determinism in some cases) constitutes a fundamental aspect in various fields of computer science, such as floating-point computations in numerical analysis and simulation, concurrency models in parallelism, reproducible builds for third parties integration and packaging, and containerization for execution environments. These concepts, while pervasive across diverse concerns, often exhibit intricate inter-dependencies, making it challenging to achieve a comprehensive understanding. In this short and vision paper we delve into the application of software engineering techniques, specifically variability management, to systematically identify and explicit points of variability that may give rise to reproducibility issues (eg language, libraries, compiler, virtual machine, OS, environment variables, etc). The primary objectives are: i) gaining insights into the variability layers and their possible interactions, ii) capturing and documenting configurations for the sake of reproducibility, and iii) exploring diverse configurations to replicate, and hence validate and ensure the robustness of results. By adopting these methodologies, we aim to address the complexities associated with reproducibility and replicability in modern software systems and environments, facilitating a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective on these critical aspects.
https://hal.science/hal-04582287
Compositions of iron-meteorite parent bodies constrainthe structure of the pr...Sérgio Sacani
Magmatic iron-meteorite parent bodies are the earliest planetesimals in the Solar System,and they preserve information about conditions and planet-forming processes in thesolar nebula. In this study, we include comprehensive elemental compositions andfractional-crystallization modeling for iron meteorites from the cores of five differenti-ated asteroids from the inner Solar System. Together with previous results of metalliccores from the outer Solar System, we conclude that asteroidal cores from the outerSolar System have smaller sizes, elevated siderophile-element abundances, and simplercrystallization processes than those from the inner Solar System. These differences arerelated to the formation locations of the parent asteroids because the solar protoplane-tary disk varied in redox conditions, elemental distributions, and dynamics at differentheliocentric distances. Using highly siderophile-element data from iron meteorites, wereconstruct the distribution of calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) across theprotoplanetary disk within the first million years of Solar-System history. CAIs, the firstsolids to condense in the Solar System, formed close to the Sun. They were, however,concentrated within the outer disk and depleted within the inner disk. Future modelsof the structure and evolution of the protoplanetary disk should account for this dis-tribution pattern of CAIs.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
SDSS1335+0728: The awakening of a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole⋆Sérgio Sacani
Context. The early-type galaxy SDSS J133519.91+072807.4 (hereafter SDSS1335+0728), which had exhibited no prior optical variations during the preceding two decades, began showing significant nuclear variability in the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) alert stream from December 2019 (as ZTF19acnskyy). This variability behaviour, coupled with the host-galaxy properties, suggests that SDSS1335+0728 hosts a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole (BH) that is currently in the process of ‘turning on’. Aims. We present a multi-wavelength photometric analysis and spectroscopic follow-up performed with the aim of better understanding the origin of the nuclear variations detected in SDSS1335+0728. Methods. We used archival photometry (from WISE, 2MASS, SDSS, GALEX, eROSITA) and spectroscopic data (from SDSS and LAMOST) to study the state of SDSS1335+0728 prior to December 2019, and new observations from Swift, SOAR/Goodman, VLT/X-shooter, and Keck/LRIS taken after its turn-on to characterise its current state. We analysed the variability of SDSS1335+0728 in the X-ray/UV/optical/mid-infrared range, modelled its spectral energy distribution prior to and after December 2019, and studied the evolution of its UV/optical spectra. Results. From our multi-wavelength photometric analysis, we find that: (a) since 2021, the UV flux (from Swift/UVOT observations) is four times brighter than the flux reported by GALEX in 2004; (b) since June 2022, the mid-infrared flux has risen more than two times, and the W1−W2 WISE colour has become redder; and (c) since February 2024, the source has begun showing X-ray emission. From our spectroscopic follow-up, we see that (i) the narrow emission line ratios are now consistent with a more energetic ionising continuum; (ii) broad emission lines are not detected; and (iii) the [OIII] line increased its flux ∼ 3.6 years after the first ZTF alert, which implies a relatively compact narrow-line-emitting region. Conclusions. We conclude that the variations observed in SDSS1335+0728 could be either explained by a ∼ 106M⊙ AGN that is just turning on or by an exotic tidal disruption event (TDE). If the former is true, SDSS1335+0728 is one of the strongest cases of an AGNobserved in the process of activating. If the latter were found to be the case, it would correspond to the longest and faintest TDE ever observed (or another class of still unknown nuclear transient). Future observations of SDSS1335+0728 are crucial to further understand its behaviour. Key words. galaxies: active– accretion, accretion discs– galaxies: individual: SDSS J133519.91+072807.4
Evidence of Jet Activity from the Secondary Black Hole in the OJ 287 Binary S...Sérgio Sacani
Wereport the study of a huge optical intraday flare on 2021 November 12 at 2 a.m. UT in the blazar OJ287. In the binary black hole model, it is associated with an impact of the secondary black hole on the accretion disk of the primary. Our multifrequency observing campaign was set up to search for such a signature of the impact based on a prediction made 8 yr earlier. The first I-band results of the flare have already been reported by Kishore et al. (2024). Here we combine these data with our monitoring in the R-band. There is a big change in the R–I spectral index by 1.0 ±0.1 between the normal background and the flare, suggesting a new component of radiation. The polarization variation during the rise of the flare suggests the same. The limits on the source size place it most reasonably in the jet of the secondary BH. We then ask why we have not seen this phenomenon before. We show that OJ287 was never before observed with sufficient sensitivity on the night when the flare should have happened according to the binary model. We also study the probability that this flare is just an oversized example of intraday variability using the Krakow data set of intense monitoring between 2015 and 2023. We find that the occurrence of a flare of this size and rapidity is unlikely. In machine-readable Tables 1 and 2, we give the full orbit-linked historical light curve of OJ287 as well as the dense monitoring sample of Krakow.
PPT on Sustainable Land Management presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Signatures of wave erosion in Titan’s coastsSérgio Sacani
The shorelines of Titan’s hydrocarbon seas trace flooded erosional landforms such as river valleys; however, it isunclear whether coastal erosion has subsequently altered these shorelines. Spacecraft observations and theo-retical models suggest that wind may cause waves to form on Titan’s seas, potentially driving coastal erosion,but the observational evidence of waves is indirect, and the processes affecting shoreline evolution on Titanremain unknown. No widely accepted framework exists for using shoreline morphology to quantitatively dis-cern coastal erosion mechanisms, even on Earth, where the dominant mechanisms are known. We combinelandscape evolution models with measurements of shoreline shape on Earth to characterize how differentcoastal erosion mechanisms affect shoreline morphology. Applying this framework to Titan, we find that theshorelines of Titan’s seas are most consistent with flooded landscapes that subsequently have been eroded bywaves, rather than a uniform erosional process or no coastal erosion, particularly if wave growth saturates atfetch lengths of tens of kilometers.
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...Sérgio Sacani
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
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(
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−
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∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
000
±
2
,
000
km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
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Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
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cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
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) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
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Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
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truly diverge from their low-
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counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
2. ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
aldehydes and ketones,
compounds that contain a
carbonyl carbon bonded to
hydrogen or carbon atoms.
Aldehydes and ketones occur
widely in nature, and also serve
as useful starting materials and
solvents in industrial processes.
All simple carbohydrates contain
a carbonyl group, and more
4. STRUCTURE AND BONDING
1. Compounds that have
only carbon and hydrogen
atoms bonded to the
carbonyl group
5. STRUCTURE AND BONDING
2. Compounds that contain an
electronegative atom bonded
to the carbonyl group.
6. STRUCTURE AND BONDING
Two structural features dominate
the properties and chemistry of
the carbonyl group.
7. STRUCTURE AND BONDING
An aldehyde is often written as RCHO.
Remember that the H atom is bonded to
the carbon atom, not the oxygen.
a ketone is written as RCOR, or if both alkyl
groups are the same, R2CO.
8. STRUCTURE AND BONDING
Many simple aldehydes and
ketones are naturally occurring.
For example, octanal, decanal,
and piperitone are among the
70 organic compounds that
contribute to the flavor and odor
of an orange.
9. PROBLEM
1. Draw out each compound to
clearly show what groups are
bonded to the carbonyl carbon.
Label each compound as a
ketone or aldehyde.
11. NOMENCLATURE
Both IUPAC and common
names are used for aldehydes
and ketones.
NAMING ALDEHYDES
In IUPAC nomenclature,
aldehydes are identified
by the suffix -al.
12. NOMENCLATURE
To name an aldehyde using the
IUPAC system:
1. Find the longest chain
containing the CHO group,
and change the -e ending
of the parent alkane to the
suffi x -al.
2. Number the chain or ring
to put the CHO group at
C1, but omit this number
from the name. Apply all
13. NOMENCLATURE
Simple aldehydes have common
names that are widely used.
In fact, the common names
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde,
and benzaldehyde are virtually
always used instead of their
IUPAC names.
Common names all contain the
suffix -aldehyde.
19. PROBLEM
2. Give the structure
corresponding to each
IUPAC name.
A. 2-chloropropanal
B. 3,4,5-triethylheptanal
C. 3,6-diethylnonanal
D. o-ethylbenzaldehyde
21. NOMENCLATURE
To name an acyclic ketone
using IUPAC rules:
1. Find the longest chain
containing the carbonyl
group, and change the
-e ending of the parent
alkane to the suffix
-one.
2. Number the carbon
22. NOMENCLATURE
With cyclic ketones, numbering
always begins at the carbonyl
carbon, but the “1” is usually
omitted from the name.
The ring is then numbered
clockwise or counterclockwise to
give the first substituent the lower
number.
23. NOMENCLATURE
Most common names for ketones are
formed by naming both alkyl
groups on the carbonyl carbon,
arranging them alphabetically,
and adding the word ketone.
Using this method, the common
name for 2-butanone becomes ethyl
methyl ketone.
29. PROBLEM
2. Draw the structure of 2-
octanone, a ketone partly
responsible for the flavor of
some mushrooms.
3. Give the structure
corresponding to each
name.
A. butyl ethyl ketone
B. 2-methyl-3-pentanone
C. p-ethylacetophenone
30. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Because aldehydes and ketones have a
polar carbonyl group, they are polar
molecules with stronger intermolecular
forces than the hydrocarbons.
Since they have no O H bond, two
molecules of RCHO or RCOR are incapable
of intermolecular hydrogen bonding, giving
them weaker intermolecular forces than
alcohols.
31. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
As a result:
•
Aldehydes and
ketones have higher
boiling points than
hydrocarbons of
comparable size.
•
Aldehydes and
ketones have lower
boiling points than
33. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Based on the general rule
governing solubility (i.e., “like
dissolves like”), aldehydes
and ketones are soluble in organic
solvents.
aldehydes and ketones contain an
oxygen atom with an available
lone pair, they can
intermolecularly hydrogen bond
to water.
35. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
As a result:
Low molecular weight
aldehydes and ketones (those
having less than six carbons)
are soluble in both organic
solvents and water.
Higher molecular weight
aldehydes and ketones (those
having six carbons or more)
are soluble in organic
37. PROBLEM
2. Acetone and progesterone are
two ketones that occur naturally
in the human body. Discuss the
solubility properties of both
compounds in water and organic
solvents.
38. INTERESTING ALDEHYDES AND
KETONES
Formaldehyde (CH2=O, the
simplest aldehyde) is a starting
material for the synthesis of
many resins and plastics, and
billions of pounds are produced
annually in the United States.
Formaldehyde is also sold as a 37%
aqueous solution called formalin,
a disinfectant and preservative
for biological specimens.
39. INTERESTING ALDEHYDES AND
KETONES
Acetone [(CH3)2C=O, the simplest
ketone] is an industrial solvent and a
starting material in the synthesis of some
organic polymers.
Acetone is produced naturally in cells during
the breakdown of fatty acids. In diabetes, a
disease where normal metabolic processes
are altered because of the inadequate
secretion of insulin, individuals often have
unusually high levels of acetone in the
bloodstream.
The characteristic odor of acetone can be
detected on the breath of diabetic patients
when their disease is poorly controlled.
40. INTERESTING ALDEHYDES AND
KETONESKetones play an important role in the tanning
industry.
Dihydroxyacetone is the active ingredient in
commercial tanning agents that produce
sunless tans.
Dihydroxyacetone reacts with proteins in the
skin, producing a complex colored pigment that
gives the skin a brown hue.
In addition, many commercial sunscreens are
ketones that have the carbonyl carbon bonded
to one or two benzene rings.
Examples include avobenzone, oxybenzone,
and dioxybenzone.
42. INTERESTING ALDEHYDES AND
KETONESSome naturally occurring compounds do
not contain a carbonyl group, but they are
converted to aldehydes and ketones by
enzymes in cells. One such compound is
amygdalin, known more commonly as
laetrile.
43. INTERESTING ALDEHYDES AND
KETONES
Amygdalin is present in the seeds and pits of apricots,
peaches, and wild cherries.
In the body, amygdalin is converted to two aldehydes,
glucose and benzaldehyde.
Also formed as a by-product is hydrogen cyanide, HCN, a
toxic gas.
Amygdalin was once touted as an anticancer drug, and
is still available in some countries for this purpose, although
its effectiveness is unproven.
It appears as if the toxic HCN produced from amygdalin
indiscriminately kills cells without targeting cancer cells.
Patients in some clinical trials involving amygdalin show signs
of cyanide poisoning but not cancer remission.
45. PROBLEM
1. Acetone [(CH3)2C=O] is a useful
solvent because it dissolves a
variety of compounds well.
For example, both hexane
[CH3(CH2)4CH3] and H2O are soluble in
acetone. Explain why these solubility properties
are observed.
3. Which sunscreen—avobenzone, oxybenzone, or
dioxybenzone—is probably most soluble in
water, and therefore most readily washed off
when an individual goes swimming? Explain your
choice.
47. REACTIONS OF ALDEHYDES AND
KETONES
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Aldehydes and ketones
undergo two general types
of reactions.1. Aldehydes can be oxidized to
carboxylic acids.
Since aldehydes contain a hydrogen atom
bonded to the carbonyl carbon, they can be
48. REACTIONS OF ALDEHYDES AND
KETONES
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2. Aldehydes and ketones undergo
addition reactions.
•
Like alkenes, aldehydes and ketones contain a multiple
bond (the carbonyl group) that is readily broken.
•
As a result, aldehydes and ketones undergo addition
reactions with a variety of reagents.
•
In the addition reaction, new groups X and Y are added to
the carbonyl group of the starting material.
•
One bond of the double bond is broken and two new
single bonds are formed.
49. OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDES
Since aldehydes contain a
hydrogen atom bonded directly to
the carbonyl carbon, they can be
oxidized to carboxylic acids; that
is, the aldehyde C H bond can
be converted to a C OH bond.
Since ketones have no hydrogen atom
bonded to the carbonyl group, they
are not oxidized under similar reaction
conditions.
50. OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDES
A common reagent for this
oxidation is potassium
dichromate, K2Cr2O7, a red-
orange solid that is converted to a
green Cr3+ product during
oxidation.
51. OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDES
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we have learned, K2Cr2O7
oxidizes other functional
groups (most notably 1° and
52. OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDES
Aldehydes can be oxidized selectively in the presence
of other functional groups using silver(I) oxide
(Ag2O) in aqueous ammonium hydroxide
(NH4OH).
This is called Tollens reagent.
Only aldehydes react with Tollens reagent; all
other functional groups are inert.
Oxidation with Tollens reagent provides a distinct
color change because the Ag+ reagent is converted
to silver metal (Ag), which precipitates out of the
reaction mixture as a silver mirror.
57. SOLUTION
Only aldehydes (RCHO) react with
Tollens reagent. Ketones and alcohols
are inert to oxidation.
The aldehyde in both compounds is oxidized
to RCO2H, but the 1° alcohol in part (b) does
not react with Tollens reagent.
58. PROBLEM
What product is formed when
each compound is treated with
Tollens reagent (Ag2O, NH4OH)? In
some cases, no reaction occurs.
59. REDUCTION OF ALDEHYDES AND
KETONES
to determine if an organic
compound has been reduced, we
compare the number of C H and C O
bonds. Reduction is the opposite
of oxidation.
60. REDUCTION OF ALDEHYDES AND
KETONES
The conversion of a carbonyl
group (C=O) to an alcohol
(C=OHThe conversion of a
carbonyl ) is a reduction, since
the starting material has more C
O bonds than the product (two
versus one).
Reduction of a carbonyl is also an
addition reaction, since the
elements of H2 are added
across the double bond,
61. REDUCTION OF ALDEHYDES AND
KETONESSPECIFIC FEATURES OF CARBONYL
REDUCTIONS
The identity of the carbonyl starting
material determines the type of alcohol
formed as product in a reduction
reaction.
62. REDUCTION OF ALDEHYDES AND
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•
Many different reagents can be used to reduce an
aldehyde or ketone to an alcohol.
•
For example, the addition of H2 to a carbonyl group
(C=O) takes place with the same reagents used for the
addition of H2 to a C=C—namely, H2 gas in the
presence of palladium (Pd) metal.
•
The metal is a catalyst that provides a surface to bind
both the carbonyl compound and H2, and this speeds up
the rate of reduction.
63. REDUCTION OF ALDEHYDES AND
KETONES
The addition of hydrogen to a
multiple bond is called
hydrogenation.
64. SAMPLE PROBLEM
What alcohol is formed when each
aldehyde or ketone is treated with
H2 in the presence of a Pd
catalyst?
65. SOLUTION
The aldehyde (RCHO) in part (a) forms a 1°
alcohol (RCH2OH) and the ketone in part
(b) forms a 2° alcohol (R2CHOH).
67. EXAMPLES OF CARBONYL
REDUCTION
IN ORGANIC SYNTHESIS
For example, muscone, a strongly
scented ketone isolated from musk, is
an ingredient in many perfumes.
Originally isolated from the male musk
deer, muscone is now prepared
synthetically in the lab. One step in the
synthesis involves reducing a ketone to
a 2° alcohol.
68. EXAMPLES OF CARBONYL
REDUCTION
IN ORGANIC SYNTHESIS
Sometimes chemists prepare molecules that do not
occur in nature because they have useful medicinal
properties.
For example, fluoxetine (trade name: Prozac) is a
prescription antidepressant that does not occur in
nature.
One step in a laboratory synthesis of fluoxetine
involves reduction of a ketone to a 2° alcohol.
Fluoxetine is widely used because it has excellent
medicinal properties, and because it is readily
available by laboratory synthesis.
69. PROBLEM
What carbonyl starting material is
needed to prepare alcohol A by a
reduction reaction. A can be
converted to the anti-
inflammatory agent ibuprofen in
three steps.
70. BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONS
The reduction of carbonyl groups is common in
biological systems. Biological systems do not use
H2 and Pd as a reducing agent.
Instead, they use the coenzyme NADH
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, reduced
form) in the presence of an enzyme.
The enzyme binds both the carbonyl compound
and NADH, holding them closely together, and
this facilitates the addition of H2 to the carbonyl
group, forming an alcohol.
71. BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONS
The NADH itself is oxidized in the
process, forming NAD+.
NAD+, a biological oxidizing agent,
is a coenzyme synthesized from the
vitamin niacin, which can be obtained
from soybeans, among other dietary
sources.
72. BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONS
For example, the reduction of pyruvic acid
with NADH, catalyzed by the enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase, yields lactic acid.
Pyruvic acid is formed during the
metabolism of the simple sugar glucose.
73. THE CHEMISTRY OF VISION
The human eye consists of two
types of light-sensitive cells—the
rod cells, which are responsible for
sight in dim light, and the cone
cells, which are responsible for color
vision and sight in bright light.
Animals like pigeons, whose eyes
have only cone cells, have color
vision but see poorly in dim light,
while owls, which have only rod
cells, are color blind but see well in
74. THE CHEMISTRY OF VISION
The chemistry of vision in the rod
cells centers around the aldehyde,
11-cis-retinal
75. THE CHEMISTRY OF VISION
Although 11-cis-retinal is a stable molecule, the cis
geometry around one of the double bonds causes
crowding; a hydrogen atom on one double bond is close
to the methyl group on an adjacent double bond.
In the human retina, 11-cis-retinal is bonded to the
protein opsin, forming rhodopsin or visual purple.
When light hits the retina, the 11-cis double bond is
isomerized to its more stable trans isomer, and all-trans-
retinal is formed.
This process sends a nerve impulse to the brain, which
is then converted into a visual image.
76. Vision
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77. Vitamin A and the
Chemistry of VisionIn order for the process to
continue, the all-trans-retinal must
be converted back to 11-cis-
retinal.
This occurs by a series of reactions
that involve biological oxidation
and reduction. As shown in the
next slide, NADH is the coenzyme
that reduces the aldehyde in all-
trans-retinal to all-trans-retinol,
vitamin A (Reaction [1]).
78. Vitamin A and the
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79. ACETAL FORMATION
Aldehydes and ketones
undergo addition reactions
with alcohols (ROH) to form
hemiacetals and acetals. Acetal
formation is done in the presence
of sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
80. ACETALS AND HEMIACETALS
Addition of one molecule of
alcohol (ROH) to an aldehyde or
ketone forms a hemiacetal.
Like other addition reactions, one
bond of the C=O is broken and
two new single bonds are formed.
Acyclic hemiacetals are unstable.
They react with a second
molecule of alcohol to form
acetals.
82. ACETALS AND HEMIACETALS
Two examples of acetal formation
using ethanol (CH3CH2OH) as the
alcohol component are given.
83. SAMPLE PROBLEM
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84. SOLUTION
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85. PROBLEM
Draw the hemiacetal and acetal
formed when each carbonyl
compound is treated with two
equivalents of the given alcohol in
the presence of H2SO4.