In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
Preparation, reactions, Acidity, effect of substituents on acidity, structure and uses of carboxylic acid and identification tests for carboxylic acid, amide and ester
Preparation and reaction of aldehyde and ketone, electromeric effect, aldol condensation, cannizarro reaction, perkin condensation, benzoin condensation, nucleophilic addition reaction and uses of aldehyde and ketone
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde.
THIS SLIDE CONTAIN ABOUT QUALITATIVE TEST, STRUCTURE AND USES OF DIFFERENT CARBONYL COMPOUNDS LIKE FORMALDEHYDE, PARALDEHYDE, ACETONE, CHLORAL HYDRATE, HEXAMINE, BENZALDEHYDE, VANILIN AND CINNAMALDEHYDE
in this slide the whole concept of dienes the topic of organic chemistry is described briefly especially from the course of B.sc.
this would be helpful for chemistry students
it includes method of preparation of dienes
addition of halogen , halogen acids. etc.
effect of temperature on reaction
Preparation, reactions, Acidity, effect of substituents on acidity, structure and uses of carboxylic acid and identification tests for carboxylic acid, amide and ester
Preparation and reaction of aldehyde and ketone, electromeric effect, aldol condensation, cannizarro reaction, perkin condensation, benzoin condensation, nucleophilic addition reaction and uses of aldehyde and ketone
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde.
THIS SLIDE CONTAIN ABOUT QUALITATIVE TEST, STRUCTURE AND USES OF DIFFERENT CARBONYL COMPOUNDS LIKE FORMALDEHYDE, PARALDEHYDE, ACETONE, CHLORAL HYDRATE, HEXAMINE, BENZALDEHYDE, VANILIN AND CINNAMALDEHYDE
in this slide the whole concept of dienes the topic of organic chemistry is described briefly especially from the course of B.sc.
this would be helpful for chemistry students
it includes method of preparation of dienes
addition of halogen , halogen acids. etc.
effect of temperature on reaction
Aldehydes and ketones are the carbonyl compounds with general formula CnH2nO. Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group and other group is either hydrogen or an alkyl or aryl group (i.e. Aldehyde has one alkyl or aryl group and one of the hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon) with characteristics functional group -CHO.
The combination of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl on the same carbon atom is called a carboxyl group. Compounds containing the carboxyl group are called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group is one of the most widely occurring functional groups in organic chemistry.
Aromatic Carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids have an aryl group bound to the carboxyl group is known as aromatic carboxylic acids. The general formula of an aliphatic aromatic carboxylic acid is Ar-COOH.
Acidity of carboxylic acid:
A carboxylic acid may dissociate in water to give a proton and a carboxylate ion. Dissociation of a carboxylic acid involves breaking an O-H bond gives a carboxylate ion with the negative charge spread out equally over two oxygen atoms, compared with just one oxygen atom in an alkoxide ion. The delocalized charge makes the carboxylate ion more stable therefore; dissociation of a carboxylic acid to a carboxylate ion is less endothermic.
Preparation Methods:
1. Oxidation:
The oxidation of aldehyde with oxidizing agents such as CrO3 to forms carboxylic acids containing the same numbers of carbon atoms with a oxidizing agents like chromic acid, chromium trioxide. The silver oxide (Ag2O) in aqueous ammonia solution (Tollen’s reagent) is mild reagent give good yield at room temperature. E.g. Acetaldehyde reacts with CrO3 in aqueous acid to give acetic acid.
2. Grignard reagents (from CO2):
Carboxylic acid can be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagent (alkyl magnesium halide) with carbon dioxide (CO2) in presence of dry ether. Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide to forms a magnesium carboxylates which on hydrolysis by dilute HCl produces carboxylic acids.
3. Hydrolysis of nitrile:
The hydrolysis of nitrile or cyanide in presence of dilute acid to forms a carboxylic acid. In this reaction –CN group is converted to a –COOH group.
4. Hydrolysis Reactions:
All the carboxylic acid derivatives can be hydrolyzed into the carboxylic acid in the acidic or basic media; the hydrolysis reaction is fast and occurs in presence of water with no acid or base catalyst.
1. From Ester (Hydrolysis of ester): Ester can be hydrolyzed in either acidic or basic medium to yield carboxylic acid. The ester is heated with an excess of water contains strong acid or base catalyst.
Properties of Carboxylic Acids:
1. Low molecular weights carboxylic acids are colourless liquid at room temperature i.e. lower member ate liquid up to C9 and have characteristic odors whereas higher members are solid.
2. Carboxylic acids are polar organic compound. Low molecular weight carboxylic acids (first four members) are soluble in water whereas solubility in water decrease as molecular weight and chain lengthing increases.
3. Aromatic acids are insoluble in water.
4. Carboxylic acids have higher melting and boiling point due to their capacity to readily form stable hydrogen-bonded dimers.
Virus, infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply only in living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria. The name is from a Latin word meaning “slimy liquid” or “poison.”
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.
In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers designed devices that magnified objects, but in 1609 Galileo Galilei perfected the first device known as a microscope. Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey are noted as the first men to develop the concept of the compound microscope.
In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers designed devices that magnified objects, but in 1609 Galileo Galilei perfected the first device known as a microscope. Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey are noted as the first men to develop the concept of the compound microscope.
Microbial Spoilage include the contamination of Pharmaceutical products with the microbes which lead to spoilage of the product affecting Drug safety and quality, and is not intended for use. Shortly Microbial Spoilage is defined as deterioration of pharmaceutical products by the contaminant microbe.
In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers designed devices that magnified objects, but in 1609 Galileo Galilei perfected the first device known as a microscope. Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey are noted as the first men to develop the concept of the compound microscope.
Bacteria are a type of biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats
Microbiology is the study of organisms that are usually too small to be seen by the unaided eye; it employs techniques—such as sterilization and the use of culture media—that are required to isolate and grow these microorganisms.
Bacteria have existed from very early in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria fossils discovered in rocks date from at least the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago), and there are convincing arguments that bacteria have been present since early Precambrian time, about 3.5 billion years ago.
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut. Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such as by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut. Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such as by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion
Diuretics, also called water pills, are medications designed to increase the amount of water and salt expelled from the body as urine. There are three types of prescription diuretics. They're often prescribed to help treat high blood pressure, but they're used for other conditions as well.
The main site of diuretic action is well established for the different groups of diuretics: carbonic anhydrase inhibitors act on the proximal tubulus, loop diuretics on the diluting segment, thiazides on the cortical diluting segment/distal tubulus, and potassium-sparing agents on distal tubulus/collecting ducts.
Diuretics, also called water pills, are medications designed to increase the amount of water and salt expelled from the body as urine. There are three types of prescription diuretics. They’re often prescribed to help treat high blood pressure, but they’re used for other conditions as well.
Proton-pump inhibitors are a group of medications whose main action is a pronounced and long-lasting reduction of stomach acid production. Within the class of medications, there is no clear evidence that one agent works better than another. They are the most potent inhibitors of acid secretion available.
The main site of diuretic action is well established for the different groups of diuretics: carbonic anhydrase inhibitors act on the proximal tubulus, loop diuretics on the diluting segment, thiazides on the cortical diluting segment/distal tubulus, and potassium-sparing agents on distal tubulus/collecting ducts.
In conclusion, the present study found that esomeprazole 40 mg daily may be more effective than either omeprazole 20 mg daily, pantoprazole 40 mg daily or lansoprazole 30 mg daily for the rapid relief of heartburn symptoms in patients with endoscopically proven reflux esophagitis.
Mechanisms of diuretic drugs. Diuretic drugs increase urine output by the kidney (i.e., promote diuresis). This is accomplished by altering how the kidney handles sodium. If the kidney excretes more sodium, then water excretion will also increase.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
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The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
2. Carbonyl compounds
Contain at least one carbonyl group.
R = R’ or R R’
C=O : the carbonyl group also known as the oxo group
3. Aldehydes terminal carbonyl groups
C
H
O
C
H
O
C
H
O
propanal butanal pentanal
No need to specify the position of the carbonyl group
4. Aldehydes, IUPAC nomenclature:
Parent chain = longest continuous carbon chain containing
the carbonyl group; alkane, drop –e, add –al. (note: no
locant, -CH=O is carbon #1.)
CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH=O CH3CHCH=O
butanal 2-methylpropanal
H2C=O CH3CH=O
methanal ethanal
5. Ketones, common names:
Special name: acetone
“alkyl alkyl ketone” or “dialkyl ketone”
H3C
C
CH3
O
CH3CH2CCH3
O
CH3CH2CCH2CH3
O
ethyl methyl ketone diethyl ketone
CH3CCH2CH2CH3
O
methyl n-propyl ketone
6. (o)phenones:
Derived from common name of carboxylic acid, drop –ic
acid, add –(o)phenone.
CR
O
C
O
H3C
C
O
benzophenone acetophenone
7. Ketones: IUPAC nomenclature:
Parent = longest continuous carbon chain containing the
carbonyl group. Alkane, drop –e, add –one. Prefix a locant
for the position of the carbonyl using the principle of lower
number.
CH3CH2CCH3
O
CH3CH2CCH2CH3
O
2-butanone 3-pentanone
CH3CCH2CH2CH3
O
2-pentanone
12. Physical Properties
Most simple aliphatic ketones and aldehydes are liquids at
room temperature except methanal (b.p. = -21°C) and
ethanal (b.p. = 20.8°C)
Aliphatic aldehydes have an unpleasant and pungent smell
Ketones and aromatic aldehydes have a pleasant and
sweet odor
13. Name Molecular
formula
Boiling
point
(oC)
Melting
point
(oC)
Density
at 20oC
(g cm-3)
Aldehydes:
Methanal HCHO -21 -92
Ethanal CH3CHO 20.8 -124 0.783
Propanal CH3CH2CHO 48.8 -81 0.807
Butanal CH3(CH2)2CHO 75.7 -99 0.817
Methylpropanal (CH3)2CHCHO 64.2 -65.9 0.790
Benzaldehyde C6H5CHO 179 -26 1.046
Physical properties of some aldehydes and ketones
14. Less dense than water except aromatic members
Name Molecular formula Boiling
point
(oC)
Melting
point
(oC)
Density
at 20oC
(g cm-3)
Ketones:
Propanone CH3COCH3 56.2 -95.4 0.791
Butanone CH3COCH2CH3 79.6 -86.9 0.806
Pentan-2-one CH3CO(CH2)2CH3 102 -77.8 0.811
Pentan-3-one CH3CH2COCH2CH3 102 -39.9 0.814
3-Methylbutan-2-one CH3COCH(CH3)2 95 -92 0.803
Hexan-2-one
Phenylethanone
CH3CO(CH2)3CH3
C6H5COCH3
127
202
-56.9
19.6
0.812
1.028
15. Boiling point : - (similar molecular masses)
carboxylic acid > alcohol > aldehyde, ketone > CxHy
Presence of polar group
Absence of –OH group
16. Solubility
Small aldehydes and ketones show appreciable solubilities
in water due to the formation of intermolecular hydrogen
bonds with water
17. Solubility
Ethanal and propanone are miscible with water in all
proportions.
Propanone(acetone) is volatile and miscible with water
Once used to clean quick-fit apparatus
potentially carcinogenic
18. Solubility
Methanal gas dissolves readily in water
Aqueous solutions of methanal (Formalin) are used to
preserve biological specimens
Methanal(formaldehyde) is highly toxic
19. Industrial preparation
By dehydrogenation (oxidation) of alcohols
C
H
H
H
O H2 + O2
Ag
heat
C O
H
H
2 + 2H2O
Cu
heat
C O
H3C
H3C
+ H2
H3C
C
CH3
O
H
H
Out-dated
Further oxidation is prohibited
20. Laboratory preparation
1. Oxidation of alcohols
1° alcohol – aldehyde - carboxylic acid
2° alcohol - ketone
Further oxidation of aldehyde to carboxylic acid is
prohibited by
(i) using a milder O.A., e.g. H+/ Cr2O7
2
21.
22. Laboratory preparation
1. Oxidation of alcohols
1 alcohol aldehyde carboxylic acid
2 alcohol ketone
Further oxidation of aldehyde to carboxylic acid is
prohibited by
(i) using a milder O.A., e.g. H+/ Cr2O7
2
(ii) distilling off the product as it is formed
25. 2 alcohol ketone
Further oxidation of ketone to carboxylic acid has not
synthetic application since
carboxylic acid
C O
H3C
H3C
[o] H3C
C O
HO
+ other products
High T
1. it requires more drastic reaction conditions
2. it results in a mixture of organic products
26. The catalyst Pd or BaSO4 is poisoned with S to
prevent further reduction to alcohol
2. Reduction of acid chlorides
27. Carboxylic acid
or acyl chloride Aldehyde Alcohol
oxidation
reduction
Preparation must be well controlled.
Intermediate oxidation state
Aldehydes
29. 4. Decarboxylation of calcium salts
Symmetrical ketones can be obtained by heating a
single calcium carboxylate
(CH3COO)2Ca + CaCO3
dry distil
400o
C
O
H3C
H3C
COO
2
Ca
dry distil
400o
C
C
O
+ CaCO3
30. 4. Decarboxylation of calcium salts
Aldehydes can be obtained by heating a mixture of two
calcium carboxylates
Cross decarboxylation is preferred
31. Decarboxylation of sodium salts gives methane or
benzene.(p.30 and p.49)
NaOH(s) from
soda lime
fusion
CH3COONa(s) CH4 + Na2CO3
NaOH(s) from
soda lime
fusion
+ Na2CO3
COONa(s)
32. 5. Catalytic hydration of alkynes
Keto-enol
tautomerism
C C HH3C
dilute H2SO4
HgSO4, 60o
C
H3C C
OH
CH2
enol
H3C
C
CH3
O
ketone
33. C C HH
dilute H2SO4
HgSO4, 60o
C
H2C C
OH
H3C
C
H
O
H
5. Catalytic hydration of alkynes
Keto-enol
tautomerism
enol
aldehyde
34. 6. Ozonolysis of symmetrical alkenes
CH3
H
H
H3C
1. O3
2. Zn / H2O
C O
H
H3C
2
CH3
CH3
H3C
H3C
1. O3
2. Zn / H2O
C O
H3C
H3C
2
35. Unsymmetrical alkenes give a mixture of two carbonyl
compounds making subsequent purification more difficult.
1. O3
2. Zn dust / H2O
C C
H
H3C
CH3
CH3
O C
CH3
CH3
C O
H
H3C
+
36. Bonding in the Carbonyl Group
The carbonyl carbon atom is sp2-hybridized
sp2 – 2p head-on overlap bond
2p – 2p side-way overlap bond
The and bonds in the C = O bond
37.
38. The most common reaction of aldehydes and
ketones is nucleophilic addition.
This is usually the addition of a nucleophile and
a proton across the C=O double bond.
As the nucleophile attacks the carbonyl group,
the carbon atom changes from sp2 to sp3.
The electrons of the bond are pushed out onto
the oxygen, generating an alkoxide anion.
Protonation of this anion gives the final product.
39. We have already encountered (at least)
two examples of this:
Grignards and ketones tertiary alcohols
PhMgBr
H3C CH3
O
H3C C
OMgBr
CH3
Ph
H3O
+
H3C C
OH
CH3
Ph
40. Sodium Borohydride Reduction
Of Aldehydes and Ketones
H BH3
-
workup
step
alcohol
aldehyde
and ketones
R
C
R
O
NABH3
R
C
R
O
BH3
H
Na
+
-
+
H3O
R
C
R
OH
H
workup
step
42. LiAlH4 reduces anything with a polar multiple bond!
aldehyde
ketone
LiAlH4 (LAH) IS NOT SELECTIVE
As with NaBH4 these compounds give alcohols:
C=Y:
d+ d-
or
C Y:
d+ d-
..
H
C
R
O
H
CH
R
OH
R
CH
R
OH
R
C
R
O
43. Under acidic conditions, weaker nucleophiles
such as water and alcohols can add.
The carbonyl group is a weak base, and in acidic
solution it can become protonated.
R R
O
H
+
R R
O
H
+
R R
O
H
+
Nuc-R C
OH
R
Nuc
44. This makes the carbon very electrophilic
(see resonance structures), and so it will
react with poor nucleophiles.
E.g. the acid catalyzed nucleophilic addition of
water to acetone to produce the acetone hydrate.
45. Summary
The base catalyzed addition reactions to carbonyl
compounds result from initial attack of a strong
nucleophile, whereas the acid catalyzed reactions
begin with the protonation of the oxygen, followed
by attack of the weaker nucleophile.
H3C C
OH
CH3
OH
H3C CH3
O
H +
H
+
H2O
H3C CH3
O
H
+
H3C CH3
O
H
+
46. Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones.
This (like all things) stems from two
factors: (1) electronics
(2) sterics
Relative Reactivity
47. Electronic Effect
Ketones have two alkyl substituents whereas
aldehydes only have one.
Carbonyl compounds undergo reaction with
nucleophiles because of the polarization of the
C=O bond.
R R
O
R H
O
48. Alkyl groups are electron donating, and
so ketones have their effective partial
positive charge reduced more than
aldehydes (two alkyl substituents vs.
one alkyl substituent).
(Aldehydes more reactive than ketones)
49. The electrophilic carbon is the site that the
nucleophile must approach for reaction to
occur.
In ketones the two alkyl substituents create
more steric hindrance than the single
substituent that aldehydes have.
Therefore ketones offer more steric resistance
to nucleophilic attack.
(Aldehydes more reactive than ketones).
Therefore both factors make aldehydes more
reactive than ketones.
50. Nucleophilic Addition of Water
(Hydration)
In aqueous solution, ketones (and aldehydes) are in
equilibrium with their hydrates (gem diols).
H2O R C
OH
R
OHC O
R
R
+
51. Most ketones have the equilibrium in favor of the
unhydrated form.
H2O H3C C
OH
CH3
OHC O
H3C
H3C
+ K = 0.002
Hydration proceeds through the two classic
nucleophilic addition mechanisms with water (in
acid) or hydroxide (in base) acting as the
nucleophile.
54. Aldehydes are more likely to form hydrates since they have the
larger partial positive charge on the carbonyl carbon (larger
charge = less stable = more reactive).
This is borne out by the following equilibrium constants.
CH3CH2
C
H
O
+ H2O CH3CH2 C
OH
OH
H
55. H H
O
+ H C
OH
OH
H
Cl3C
C
H
O
H2O+
H2O
Cl3C C
OH
OH
H
56. Nucleophilic Addition of Hydrogen
Cyanide (Cyanohydrins)
Hydrogen cyanide is toxic volatile liquid (b.p.26°C)
H-CN + H2O H3O+ + -CN pKa = 9.2
Cyanide is a strong base (HCN weak acid) and a good
nucleophile.
Cyanide reacts rapidly with carbonyl compounds
producing cyanohydrins, via the base catalyzed
nucleophilic addition mechanism.
57. R R
O
R C
O
CN
R
C N
- -
HC N
R C
OH
CN
R
Like hydrate formation, cyanohydrin formation is an
equilibrium governed reaction (i.e. reversible reaction),
and accordingly aldehydes are more reactive than ketones.
58. Formation of Imines
(Condensation Reactions)
Under appropriate conditions, primary amines (and
ammonia) react with ketones or aldehydes to generate
imines.
H2O
R R
O
R C
OH
HN
R
R
R NH2 - R C
N
R
R
59. The mechanism of imine formation starts with the
basic addition of the amine to the carbonyl group.
H2O+
R R'
O
R NH2
-
R C
O
N
R'
RH
H
H3O
+
R C
OH
HN
R'
R
Protonation of the oxyanion and deprotonation
of the nitrogen cation generates an unstable
intermediate called a carbinolamine.
60. The carbinolamine has its oxygen protonated, and
then water acts as the good leaving group.
H2O
+
H3O
+
R C
OH
HN
R'
R
R C
O
HN
R'
R
HH
R
C
HN
R'
R
+
+
R
C
R'
N
R
R
C
R'
N
H R
H3O +
61. •This acid catalyzed dehydration creates the double bond,
and the last step is the removal of the proton to produce
the neutral amine product.
The pH of the reaction mixture is crucial to successful
formation of imines.
The pH must be acidic to promote the dehydration step,
yet if the mixture is too acidic, then the reacting amine will
be protonated, and therefore un-nucleophilic, and this
should inhibit the first step.
The rate of reaction varies with the pH as follows:
The best pH for imine formation is around 4.5.
62. Condensations with Hydroxylamines
and Hydrazines
•Aldehydes and ketones also condense with other ammonia
derivatives, such as hydroxylamine and hydrazines.
•Generally these reactions are better than the analogous amine
reactions (i.e. give superior yields).
•.
63. • Oximes are produced when hydroxylamines are reacted
with aldehydes and ketones
•Hydrazones are produced through reaction of hydrazines
with aldehydes and ketones.
64. Oxidation
•Unlike ketones, aldehydes can be oxidized easily to
carboxylic acids (Chromic acid, permanganate etc).
R C H
O
[O]
R C OH
O
Even weak oxidants like silver (I) oxide can perform this
reaction, and this is a good, mild selective way to prepare
carboxylic acids in the presence of other (oxidizable)
functionalities. E.g.
66. Silver Mirror Test (Tollen's Test)
This type of oxidation reaction is the basis of the most
common chemical test for aldehydes - the Silver Mirror
Test.
Tollen's reagent is added to an unknown compound, and if
an aldehyde is present, it is oxidized.
R-CHO+2Ag(NH3)2
++ 3OH- 2Ag+RCO2
-+ 4NH3+2H2O
This process reduces the Ag+ to Ag, and the Ag
precipitates - it sticks to the flask wall, and forms a 'silver
mirror'.