The document discusses various topics related to bilingualism including diglossia, borrowing, code-switching, and code-mixing. It provides definitions and examples of these concepts. Diglossia refers to a situation where two languages or varieties are used in a community, with one having higher status. Borrowing occurs when words are adopted from one language into another due to language contact. Code-switching involves alternating between two languages in conversation, while code-mixing combines words from different languages.

1. 1
Bilingualism
• Diglossia
• Borrowing
• Code-switching
Diglossia
A sociolinguistic situation in which
two languages ar varieties are spoken
in a community with one language
having higher status or prestige
Borrowing
• Language contact results in borrowing even
when there isn’t widespread bilingualism:
chow mein, spaghetti, pad thai, tacos,
crepes, soba noodles (‘noodle noodles’),
bratwurst, tabouleh, samosas, couscous,
maize, chocolate...
• Bilingual people can borrow even more
words:
– Get me my [®ejb √ws √w]
Code Switching
People who are bilingual tend to
switch back and forth between two
languages not only in different social
situations but also within the same
conversation.
Codeswitching is different from
borrowing, even though bilinguals may
borrow words that monolinguals are not
familiar with
• Honey, can you get me my [m√w»tSil´]?
vs.
• I’m going to [»meçiko]
Codeswitching examples from
My Journey Home
• Armando, pero my god
• Chip---como se le llama, Armando? (A.
answers My Three Sons)---Chip from My
Three Sons…y este es Ernie
• There’s something I’ve been meaning to tell
you, pero I didn’t

2. 2
• Matrix language---the main language of
the utterance
• Embedding language---the language being
inserted into the utterance
People tend to have one of two
attitudes towards code-switching:
• It is grammatically incorrect, poor usage of
the language(s) and a sign of a lack of
education and/or linguistic incompetence
• It is cool and expressive of biculturalism
All bilingual people code-switch
to some extent. It is a sign of
linguistic resourcefulness.
Codeswitching may happen more when
a speech community is on the way to
language shift, because:
• in this situation there is more bilingualism
• both languages are coming to share the
same social domain
There are different syntactic
types of codeswitching:
• tag switching---Tag words (like “you
know”) are switched: “She went back home
again ¿verdad?”
• intersentential switching---switching
between sentences: “I’m going pee-pee.
¡Ven aquí!” ---ENAB 11/22/2003
• intrasentential switching---switching in
mid sentence, usually nouns and noun
phrases: “Here estoy”
Bilingual speakers often believe
they switch because they don't
know a term; but often switching
occurs where speakers know the
word in both languages.

3. 3
One common practice is to repeat
the same thing in both languages.
• “¿Más agua? Do you want some more
water?”
• E: “Nice caballo.”
R: “Yeah, nice horse. Buen caballo.”
Researchers have identified
different types of codeswitching
according to social and semantic
contexts including:
• Situational switching
• Metaphorical switching
• Referential switching
• Directive switching
• Expressive switching
Situational Codeswitching
In Norway a local dialect is used for
greetings, inquiries about one’s
family, while Standard Norwegian is
used for business transactions
Metaphorical switching
• “¡Ven acá! ¡Ven acá! Come here, you!
• “Yano-san-wa (‘as for Mr. Yano’), he was
speaking all in English.
• ¿Hiciste tu homework?
• Gov. Schwarzennegger has said that his
kids know he’s serious about them doing
something when he starts counting to three
and that if he’s counting in German they
really know he means business.
Referential switching---talking
about a subject that normally is
done in the other language
When we were dating we really liked
to bailar las cumbias.
Directive switching---which
conversational participant is it
directed to?
• R to F(in Spanish): ‘How much do you
want for this rug?
• L to F (in Spanish): ‘Give her a good price.’
• F to L (in Valley Zapotec): ‘What do you
think/how much did we pay for it/XXX?’
• L to F (in Valley Zapotec): ‘It cost us ___,
why don’t you tell her ___.’
• F to R (in Spanish): ‘500 pesos.’

4. 4
Code-switching can also be done
to be secretive:
In a restaurant:
• A: How are your prawns?
• B: Good.
• A: Porque creo que el pescado está pasado.
(‘Because I think the fish has gone bad’)
Expressive switching---stylistic,
code-switching is a mode itself.
Vamos al dancing (‘let’s go dancing’)
Llévame my darling (‘take me, darling’)
Y cuando llegamos al parking (‘and when we
get to the parking lot’)
Lo encontramos full (we find it’s full)
…---Verónica Castro song, mid 1990’s
Linguistic stereotypes
Languages play differing functional
roles in people's lives and become
associated with different kinds of
meaning.
There is no linguistic difference that
should make French more romantic
than Tlingit or German more scientific
than Hawaiian
• The language of affection and love is the language
of the home
• The language of officialdom is the language of the
government and other institutions
• Different homes and different governments use
different languages but with the same connotations.
When a language is limited to certain functions
and social situations, bilinguals may still have
"incomplete" language learning.
• Most bilinguals are not balanced bilinguals but are
dominant in one language (usually the language of
the society they grew up and/or were educated in).
• If you learned and use a language mostly in school
or on the job, you may not understand a lot when
you get into an informal situation.
• If all of your education is in one language you may
not command of the formal register of the other
language, or be able to speak about science etc.
Different than code-switching is
code-mixing--- “using a word from
one language with suffixes from the
other language” (Hinton’s class
notes)
• “We are having Thanksgiving at abuela’s
house” Dora’s Thanksgiving (Wilson, 2003)
• “un-afortunadamente” ---EAW 1994

5. 5
But perhaps this could also
include mixing phonologies (---
Rosemary)
• “Hola, ¿esto es [ejvis]?” ---EAW from
Oaxaca hotel (‘Hi, is this Avis?) English
[ejv´s], Spanish [eBis] or [aBis] ‘three’
• [TRi]---overheard at a conference from a
linguist who recently returned from Mexico
• ‘Guatemala’ [waR´mala] ---Rosemary in
class English instead of English
[gwaR´mala] or Spanish: [(g)watemala]