This document discusses various linguistic concepts related to language mixing, including code switching, code mixing, borrowing, pidginization, and creolization. It provides definitions and examples of each concept. Code switching refers to alternating between two languages or varieties within a conversation, while code mixing occurs when elements of two languages are combined within a single utterance or sentence. Borrowing involves integrating words or features from one language into another. Pidginization is the simplification and mixing of languages for communication between groups with no common language, and may lead to the development of a creole language if the pidgin becomes a community's primary language.

1. Mixture of varieties
Code switching , code-
mixing, borrowing,
poetization and
creolization
Lecture in
sociolinguistics
Set by:
Nawfal A. Alsaadi
Karbala university

2. Mixture of language varieties is now a common
phenomenon
the term varieties of language can be used to refer to
different manifestations of it. According to Hudson
(1996), variety of a language is “a set of linguistic
items with similar distribution

3. Definition Code Switching
Wahdani (2010, p. 3) says that code switching is a term in linguistics
referring to using more than one language or dialect in conversation.
Baker and Jones (1998) code-switching is ‘a change of language within a
conversation, most often when bilinguals are in the company of other bilinguals’.
Hoffmann (1991) code-switching is the use of two languages alternatively or using
different varieties in the same language within a conversation.
. Gumperz (1982) as cited in Karjo (2006), code switching is the using of two
languages together alternating in one conversation or speech. On the other hand

4. Causal Factors of Code Switching
• Hutabarat (2011, p. 5) says that, there are four casual factors in
code switching:
1. Conversant
A conversant sometimes switches the code with another conversant
because of certain purpose. For example, to change formal
situation to informal situation and in versa.
2. Background of language
If the first conversant and the second conversant have a similar
background of language, they will switch the code in variant
switching form, but if the first conversant and the second
conversant have a different background of language, they will
switch the code in language switching form.

5. • 3. The appearance of the third conversant
• If the third conversant has the different background of language
with the first and the second conversant, they usually do code
switching to neutralize the situation and to respect the
appearance the third conversant.
• 4. Topic
• Topic is the dominant factor in determining code switching. The
formal topic is usually served in neutral and serious style of
language and informal topic is usually served in relax style of
language.

6. Types of code switching
• Many attempts have been made to categorize code-
switching within the domain of sociolinguistics.
• Code-switching can be classified in terms of the grammatical/syntactical or
discourse/pragmatic aspects of the shift.
• The difference between the grammatical and pragmatic approach is mainly
at The pragmatic framework assumes that the motivation for switching is
basically stylistic and that code-switching is to be treated as a discourse
phenomenon which cannot be satisfactorily handled in terms of the internal
structure of sentences.
• The grammatical perspective is primarily concerned with accounting for the
linguistic constrains on code-switching. Now another classification of code-
switching can be mentioned. According to this classification there are two
types of code-switching: situational and metaphorical

7. • Situational code-switching
• When people switch one code to another for reasons which can
be identified, it is called situational code-switching. If we knew
the relevant situational or social factors in advance in such case,
we could predict the switches.

8. • Metaphorical code-switching:
• When a change of topic requires a change in the language use, we have
metaphorical code-switching. In metaphorical code-switching topic change is
occurred. For example, code switching from formal to informal, official to
personal, serious to humorous situation. Again code-switching can be
classified as follows;
• Internal code-switching
• External code-switching
• Internal code switching: Internal code switching takes place with a language.
It has two types:
• a. Diglossic code-switching: means where code is switched between a high
and low variety.
• b. Dialectal code-switching: which occurs within two or more dialects?
• External code-switching: occurs within two or more languages
simultaneously. It generally takes place in bilingual situation.

9. Code mixing
• Code-mixing is actually the mixing of different varieties of
language. It refers to mixing of two different codes within a
sentence.
• Ward augh (1992) defines code–mixing as the deliberate use of two
languages without an associated topic change. It is basically found
in multilingual places. It is closely related to code-switching.
• Code–mixing does not necessarily result in a change of topic or
section. It occurs when conversant use both languages together to
the extent that they change from one language to the other in the
course of a single utterance. This kind of alteration is called code–
mixing.

10. • The purpose of code–mixing seems to symbolize a somewhat
ambiguous situation for which neither language on its own would be
quite right.
• To get the right effect the speakers balance the two languages, then a
few words of the other, and then back to the first for a few more
words and so on. The changes generally take place more or less
randomly as far as subject-matter is concerned, but they seem to be
limited by the sentence-structure.

11. • Code–mixing involves mixing of:
•
• A). Two languages
• B). Two or more languages
• C). Two or more diglossic varieties

12. • There are two types of code–mixing:
• a. Intra-sentential code–mixing
• b. Inter-sentential code–mixing
• Intra sentential code-mixing: Intra-sentential code–mixing takes
place within sentence or clause or word boundaries with no
apparent change in topic. An Intra-sentential code–mixing can
occur in three processes:-
• Firstly, noun insertion: This code mixing involves the mixing of
noun in one code in a sentence which is another code.
• Secondly, Verb insertion: This code mixing involves the mixing
of verb in a sentence from one code and remaining parts are
from another code.

13. • Inter-sentential code-mixing: Inter sentential code-mixing takes
place if one informant is asked to describe an
incident she/he begins to describe it in her/his standard
language and switches to his second language and then
completes it in his local variety.
• Code-switching and code-mixing occur in all linguistic
situations. These two occur frequently in multilingual, bilingual
and even in monolingual countries.

14. Borrowing
• The process of borrowing is another way in which different
languages may become mixed up with each other. Code-
borrowing involves mixing the language system themselves
because an item is ‘borrowed’ from one language to become part of
the other language.
• According to Spolsky (1998), ‘the integration of a word from one
language into another’ is the classical borrowing case. In this
regard, Bloomfield (1935) stated that the adoption ‘of features
which differ from those of the main tradition is linguistic
borrowing.’

15. • According to Spolsky (1998), ‘the integration of a word from one
language into another’ is the classical borrowing case. In this regard,
Bloomfield (1935) stated that the adoption ‘of features which differ
from those of the main tradition is linguistic borrowing.’
• There are also a number of borrowed words in English from other
languages which are borrowing only in the historical sense, and
which ordinary people no longer associate with any other language.
• English language has borrowed words from Latin, Greek and French
which constitute more than half of its vocabulary. Words like money,
car and letter can be traced as borrowings from these languages.

16. • As the concept of the particular kind of foods that can be termed
as fast foods are very much western, no Bangla equivalent words
could possible imply the same sense. Again, many English words
have crept into the everyday language of Bangladeshi
people. For example, table, chair, cup, mobile etc. These are
borrowed words from English to Bangla, but none of us are aware
of this and use it just like any other Bangla word.

17. • Pidginisation & Creolisation
• When French became the new language of parliament in
England in 1066, it was a lingua franca: the vernacular was still
English, but in order to communicate, people spoke French, or
sometimes Latin.
• Much later, during the colonial period, lingua francas were
needed again; this time to for communication between the
colonisers and the locals.
• The main difference between these two scenarios is that in the
second, a pidgin was created. A pidgin is a language used
primarily for communication between two groups with no
common language.

18. • It is thought that the reason behind this is that there were two
languages involved after the Norman conquest (French and
English), whereas in order to create a pidgin, three languages
are needed. Because of the nature of many countries being
colonised at the time, there were often three languages: English,
and two local dialects. This is essential, because the locals must
communicate in the pidgin in order to understand one another.

19. •
• Pidginisation involves a superstrate language and a substrate.
The superstrate is the language of power: whoever the coloniser
is has money, weapons, and more than a pinch of arrogance, so
the superstrate is commonly English, French, Spanish,
Portuguese, Dutch, or German. The substrates are usually the
local languages.
• A pidgin language takes the majority of its vocabulary of the
superstrate, and the grammar and pronunciation of the
substrate. All of these are massively simplified: the language is
one of necessity; it isn’t used for discussing the finer points of
Shakespeare, but for negotiating the price of tea.

20. • For example, in Tok Pisin, the word for anything that grows is
gras, from the English grass. The Patwa for bird is bud, with the
difficult consonant cluster ‘rd’ removed. Difficult sounds, such
as the sounds which children acquire last, are often removed in
pidgin languages.
• ‘Ten thousand years ago’ in Patwa is ‘ten tauzin yiers ago’: the
‘th’ is removed, as is the diphthong in years (rather that fitting
two sounds into the word, the Patwa adds another syllable so it
is pronounced ye-ahs). As you can see, pidgins are spelled as
they are pronounced. No pesky silent letters or letters which
can be pronounced in a number of different way depending on
where they are in the word. English actually has a lot to learn
from these languages…