The document discusses tuberculosis in children, including its epidemiology, etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and management. It notes that tuberculosis is endemic in Pakistan, with over 200,000 new cases annually. Children under 15 account for 20% of cases. The causative agent is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Clinical features vary depending on the site of infection, and may include cough, fever, lymph node enlargement, and meningitis. Diagnosis involves tuberculin tests, chest X-rays, and culture of fluid/tissue samples. Standard drug regimens include isoniazid and rifampin for 6-12 months. Prevention involves BCG vaccination, contact screening, and prophylactic treatment of
India has the largest burden of tuberculosis. The disease is gradually extending its storm into the paediatric age group, the manifest in which is severe and tortous. So a preventive approach is always better than a curative approach
The document discusses the deadly combination of the HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis (TB) pandemics. It states that around 12 million people worldwide are co-infected with HIV and TB, and that each disease makes the other worse. New tools are needed to combat the co-epidemic, including vaccines, diagnostics, and treatments. The Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation is working to develop new TB vaccines to help eliminate TB globally by 2050.
Here are some key points regarding the feasibility of bacteriological diagnosis in children with TB:
- Sputum induction or gastric lavage are generally required to obtain specimens from children, as they typically cannot produce sputum on demand. This requires specialized equipment and trained personnel.
- Even with induced sputum or gastric lavage, specimen quality and volume may be low, reducing the sensitivity of bacteriological tests.
- Young children especially may not be able to cooperate with procedures like sputum induction.
- Extrapulmonary TB is more common in children than adults, so specimens from sites like lymph nodes, cerebrospinal fluid, etc. need to be obtained invasively via procedures like biopsy or lumbar puncture
This document discusses bronchiolitis, a common lower respiratory tract infection in young children caused by viruses like RSV. It describes two cases of infants presenting with symptoms of bronchiolitis like nasal congestion, cough, poor feeding and respiratory distress. It covers assessing severity, investigations, management including oxygen, nutrition, monitoring and intensive care if needed. While bronchodilators and corticosteroids are often used, the document notes clinical trials have not found clear benefits for their use in viral bronchiolitis. Mild cases can be managed at home without specific therapy, while moderate to severe cases require admission.
This document discusses pneumonia in children. It defines pneumonia and describes different types including lobar, bronchopneumonia, and interstitial pneumonia. The pathogens causing pneumonia vary by a child's age. Clinical manifestations depend on age with neonates showing subtle signs and older children showing fever, cough, and difficulty breathing. Investigations may include blood tests, chest x-rays, and culture of respiratory samples. Treatment depends on severity but usually involves antibiotics, oxygen, and hospitalization for severe or complicated cases. World Health Organization guidelines recommend oral amoxicillin for non-severe cases and injectable antibiotics for severe or non-responding cases.
This document discusses tuberculosis (TB) in children. It begins with an overview of the clinical spectrum of TB in children, which can include pulmonary, visceral, cutaneous, neuro, and perinatal manifestations. Pulmonary TB lesions in children typically include primary complexes and intrathoracic lymphadenopathy. Extrapulmonary TB involves sites like bone, joints, the gastrointestinal tract, and the central nervous system. The document then covers the diagnosis of TB in children, which involves clinical judgment based on exposure history and symptoms, the tuberculin skin test, chest x-ray, and bacteriological confirmation via sputum sampling or gastric aspiration. Interpretation of diagnostic tests and their limitations are also discussed.
management of childhood tuberculosis in 2023.pptxPathKind Labs
diagnosis of childhood TB is a challange, but if we follow a system of screening and then appropriate diagnostic tests following contact tracing, we are likely to identify children with infection or disease and put them on appropriate treatment.
The document discusses tuberculosis in children, including its epidemiology, etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and management. It notes that tuberculosis is endemic in Pakistan, with over 200,000 new cases annually. Children under 15 account for 20% of cases. The causative agent is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Clinical features vary depending on the site of infection, and may include cough, fever, lymph node enlargement, and meningitis. Diagnosis involves tuberculin tests, chest X-rays, and culture of fluid/tissue samples. Standard drug regimens include isoniazid and rifampin for 6-12 months. Prevention involves BCG vaccination, contact screening, and prophylactic treatment of
India has the largest burden of tuberculosis. The disease is gradually extending its storm into the paediatric age group, the manifest in which is severe and tortous. So a preventive approach is always better than a curative approach
The document discusses the deadly combination of the HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis (TB) pandemics. It states that around 12 million people worldwide are co-infected with HIV and TB, and that each disease makes the other worse. New tools are needed to combat the co-epidemic, including vaccines, diagnostics, and treatments. The Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation is working to develop new TB vaccines to help eliminate TB globally by 2050.
Here are some key points regarding the feasibility of bacteriological diagnosis in children with TB:
- Sputum induction or gastric lavage are generally required to obtain specimens from children, as they typically cannot produce sputum on demand. This requires specialized equipment and trained personnel.
- Even with induced sputum or gastric lavage, specimen quality and volume may be low, reducing the sensitivity of bacteriological tests.
- Young children especially may not be able to cooperate with procedures like sputum induction.
- Extrapulmonary TB is more common in children than adults, so specimens from sites like lymph nodes, cerebrospinal fluid, etc. need to be obtained invasively via procedures like biopsy or lumbar puncture
This document discusses bronchiolitis, a common lower respiratory tract infection in young children caused by viruses like RSV. It describes two cases of infants presenting with symptoms of bronchiolitis like nasal congestion, cough, poor feeding and respiratory distress. It covers assessing severity, investigations, management including oxygen, nutrition, monitoring and intensive care if needed. While bronchodilators and corticosteroids are often used, the document notes clinical trials have not found clear benefits for their use in viral bronchiolitis. Mild cases can be managed at home without specific therapy, while moderate to severe cases require admission.
This document discusses pneumonia in children. It defines pneumonia and describes different types including lobar, bronchopneumonia, and interstitial pneumonia. The pathogens causing pneumonia vary by a child's age. Clinical manifestations depend on age with neonates showing subtle signs and older children showing fever, cough, and difficulty breathing. Investigations may include blood tests, chest x-rays, and culture of respiratory samples. Treatment depends on severity but usually involves antibiotics, oxygen, and hospitalization for severe or complicated cases. World Health Organization guidelines recommend oral amoxicillin for non-severe cases and injectable antibiotics for severe or non-responding cases.
This document discusses tuberculosis (TB) in children. It begins with an overview of the clinical spectrum of TB in children, which can include pulmonary, visceral, cutaneous, neuro, and perinatal manifestations. Pulmonary TB lesions in children typically include primary complexes and intrathoracic lymphadenopathy. Extrapulmonary TB involves sites like bone, joints, the gastrointestinal tract, and the central nervous system. The document then covers the diagnosis of TB in children, which involves clinical judgment based on exposure history and symptoms, the tuberculin skin test, chest x-ray, and bacteriological confirmation via sputum sampling or gastric aspiration. Interpretation of diagnostic tests and their limitations are also discussed.
management of childhood tuberculosis in 2023.pptxPathKind Labs
diagnosis of childhood TB is a challange, but if we follow a system of screening and then appropriate diagnostic tests following contact tracing, we are likely to identify children with infection or disease and put them on appropriate treatment.
This document summarizes key information about pediatric tuberculosis (TB). It describes that TB is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and can manifest as latent or active disease. Active TB can be pulmonary or extrapulmonary. Worldwide, there are an estimated 8.7 million new TB cases annually, including 490,000 in children. Infants and young children are more susceptible to developing life-threatening forms of TB. Diagnosis involves tests such as tuberculin skin test (TST), chest x-ray, and sputum culture. Treatment consists of a multi-drug regimen including isoniazid and rifampin over 6-12 months depending on disease type.
The document summarizes tuberculosis (TB) pathology. It describes the bacteriology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. bovis, which are common causes of TB. The pathogenesis of TB involves an initial inflammatory response followed by macrophage infiltration and formation of granulomas containing epithelioid cells and Langhans giant cells. TB lesions can be either productive or exudative depending on the organ involved. Microscopic findings include caseous necrosis surrounded by epithelioid and giant cells. TB can spread locally, via lymphatics or bloodstream to cause extrapulmonary or miliary disease. Organ involvement and response depends on factors like bacterial load, host immunity, and previous exposure.
1) A 27-month old girl presented with worsening cough and fever for two weeks. Imaging showed a large right-sided pleural effusion and empyema.
2) CT chest revealed a large encysted pleural collection, broncho-pleural fistula, and compression of the right lung. A chest tube was inserted which drained purulent fluid.
3) Antibiotics were started and adjusted based on cultures. The child improved with chest physiotherapy and antibiotics but required a prolonged course of over 3 weeks due to complications.
Approach to a patient with fever of unknown origin sunil kumar daha
Please find the power point on Approach to a patient with fever of unknown origin . I tried to present it on understandable way and all the contents are reviewed by experts and from very reliable references. Thank you
Adjunctive corticosteroid therapy in tuberculosis managementMohit Aggarwal
This document discusses the use of adjunctive corticosteroid therapy in the management of tuberculosis. It provides guidance on when corticosteroids may be beneficial, such as in tuberculous meningitis, pericarditis, and adrenal insufficiency. It also notes potential indications and contraindications for different forms of tuberculosis and outlines dosage regimens for corticosteroid therapy in tuberculous meningitis and pericarditis. The document concludes that corticosteroids can improve outcomes when used adjunctively with antitubercular therapy in certain severe forms of tuberculosis but are generally not recommended for pulmonary tuberculosis alone.
- Childhood tuberculosis is challenging to diagnose due to difficulties in confirming infection status and obtaining bacteriological confirmation.
- Risk of developing active TB is highest in the first two years of life, with disseminated disease and mortality also more common in young children.
- Diagnosis relies on clinical features, radiology, tuberculin skin testing, and bacteriological confirmation through sputum/gastric aspirate sampling and culture.
- Treatment guidelines in India recommend 6 months of chemotherapy for all childhood contacts of active TB cases, and clinically diagnosed cases can now begin treatment if confirmation testing is negative.
This document discusses pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO). It begins by defining PUO according to old and new definitions. It then expands the new definition to include categories like nosocomial PUO, neutropenic PUO, and HIV-associated PUO. The document goes on to discuss the causes of PUO in different regions and time periods, with infectious diseases like tuberculosis being very common. It also outlines the evaluation and diagnostic approach for PUO, including relevant laboratory tests, physical exam findings, and potential etiologies.
Pertussis, or whooping cough, is an acute infectious disease caused by the bacteria Bordetella pertussis. It is characterized by a hundred day cough with an insidious onset of mild fever and irritating cough that develops into loud whooping sounds upon inspiration. It primarily affects infants and preschool children, with higher incidence and fatality among females. Transmission occurs through droplet infection or direct contact. Treatment involves erythromycin for confirmed cases and their contacts. Active immunization with DPT vaccine is recommended in three doses plus a booster.
This document provides information on pertussis (whooping cough), including its causative agents, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and references. Pertussis is caused by Bordetella pertussis and related bacteria. It is highly contagious and while vaccination has reduced cases and deaths, it remains endemic. Presentation varies by age but commonly involves paroxysmal coughing fits. Treatment involves antibiotics in early stages and supportive care. Prevention centers on vaccination with DPT or DTaP.
The document discusses the approach to cough and its management. It defines cough and describes the cough reflex mechanism. Cough can be initiated voluntarily or involuntarily and involves both afferent and efferent pathways. Cough receptors are located in various areas including the pharynx, sinuses, stomach and ears. The cause of cough can be extra-pulmonary. A careful history regarding onset, character, production, timing and associated symptoms is important to narrow the diagnosis. Acute, recurrent and chronic cough have different etiologies depending on the patient's age. Proper diagnosis involves considering clinical features, sputum examination and treatment response.
Community acquired pneumonia is a major cause of childhood morbidity and mortality worldwide, especially in developing countries. In India, acute respiratory infections account for 24% of the disease burden and 13% of deaths in children under 5 years of age. Pneumonia is commonly caused by pathogens like Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus. Clinical features include fever, cough, difficulty breathing, and fast breathing. Chest x-rays are not always needed for diagnosis. Severity is assessed using WHO criteria to determine appropriate treatment setting and antibiotics. Supportive care includes oxygen and fluids. Antibiotics are typically given for 5-7 days but longer for severe or staphylococcal pneumonia
This document discusses fever of unknown origin (FUO) in children. It defines FUO as a fever over 38°C that cannot be explained after 3 weeks of outpatient evaluation or 1 week of inpatient evaluation. Potential causes are divided into infectious and non-infectious categories. A thorough history, physical exam, and targeted investigations are important to identify the cause. Based on patient location and immune status, FUO can be further classified as classic, healthcare-associated, immune deficient, or HIV-related FUO. The most common causes vary according to these classifications.
This document provides information on meningococcal infection. It begins by defining meningococcal infection and describing its causative agent, Neisseria meningitidis. It then covers the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical forms, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of meningococcal infection. Key points include that it is transmitted via air droplets and can cause meningitis, meningococcemia, or both. Clinical features depend on the form but may include fever, rash, headache and vomiting. Diagnosis involves examining cerebrospinal fluid which shows pleocytosis. Meningococcal infection is a serious public health issue worldwide.
Non-resolving pneumonia can have several causes, including misdiagnosis of the pathogen, host factors like comorbidities or immune deficiencies, or development of complications from the initial infection. Normal resolution of pneumonia involves improvement within 3-5 days, while slow resolution may take over a month. Factors like age, severity of illness, and the infectious agent can impact the rate of resolution. Evaluation of non-resolving cases should consider multidrug-resistant bacteria, non-bacterial pathogens, underlying host conditions, or non-infectious mimickers of pneumonia.
1. Meningococcal infection, caused by Neisseria meningitidis, manifests as meningitis or septicemia. It is a serious and life-threatening disease, especially in children.
2. N. meningitidis is a gram-negative coccus that colonizes the nasopharynx initially before invading the bloodstream and meninges. Virulence factors like capsular polysaccharides and pili aid in invasion and evading the immune system.
3. Diagnosis involves identifying the organism from blood or CSF cultures. Treatment involves antibiotics like ceftriaxone or penicillin. Outcomes range from full recovery to death, with purpura fulminans carrying the
Community Acquired Pneumonia is an inflammatory lung condition caused by infection. It is defined as pneumonia occurring outside of a hospital setting. Respiratory infections are the leading cause of doctor visits. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common pathogen identified, causing around 46% of cases. Risk factors include older age, smoking, lung disease, and conditions that impair immunity or clearance of secretions. Diagnosis involves assessing severity, likely pathogens, and testing sputum, blood, or urine depending on the suspected germ. Most cases are treated initially with antibiotics at home or in the hospital depending on severity. Vaccines can help prevent many types of community acquired pneumonia.
Viral bronchiolitis most commonly affects infants under 6 months and is caused primarily by respiratory syncytial virus. It is characterized by airway inflammation and obstruction. While most cases are mild and self-limiting, risk factors like prematurity, congenital heart disease, and passive smoking can lead to more severe disease requiring hospitalization. Treatment is supportive with oxygen supplementation. Systemic corticosteroids and bronchodilators are not routinely recommended.
Pneumonia in children can be caused by viral or bacterial infections that lead to lung inflammation and fluid-filled alveoli. It is a common cause of death in children under 5 years old. Common bacteria that cause pneumonia include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus. Clinically, pneumonia can be diagnosed by symptoms like fast breathing, chest indrawing, and coarse lung sounds. Chest x-rays can reveal lung infiltrates. Treatment involves antibiotics, oxygen, and managing symptoms. Vaccines help prevent acute respiratory infections that can lead to pneumonia.
Primary tuberculosis occurs during initial infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is usually mild and asymptomatic, but can sometimes cause flu-like symptoms. Left untreated, the bacteria infect lung macrophages and lymph nodes, triggering an immune response. Primary tuberculosis most commonly affects infants and children under 5. It may result in positive tuberculin skin tests or lung abnormalities on chest x-ray. The infection forms small granulomas called tubercles in the lungs that later heal but remain visible on x-rays. During latency, the person cannot transmit tuberculosis. Treatment requires multiple antibiotics taken regularly for at least 6 months.
The Walgreen Timetable predicts that pulmonary tuberculosis can manifest within months of primary infection, while miliary and meningeal tuberculosis typically occur 2-6 months later. TB adenitis usually develops 3-9 months after infection, while bones and joints tuberculosis can take several years, and renal and genital tuberculosis may take over a decade to manifest. Pulmonary lesions from reactivation of dormant foci take years after primary infection.
This document summarizes key information about pediatric tuberculosis (TB). It describes that TB is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and can manifest as latent or active disease. Active TB can be pulmonary or extrapulmonary. Worldwide, there are an estimated 8.7 million new TB cases annually, including 490,000 in children. Infants and young children are more susceptible to developing life-threatening forms of TB. Diagnosis involves tests such as tuberculin skin test (TST), chest x-ray, and sputum culture. Treatment consists of a multi-drug regimen including isoniazid and rifampin over 6-12 months depending on disease type.
The document summarizes tuberculosis (TB) pathology. It describes the bacteriology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. bovis, which are common causes of TB. The pathogenesis of TB involves an initial inflammatory response followed by macrophage infiltration and formation of granulomas containing epithelioid cells and Langhans giant cells. TB lesions can be either productive or exudative depending on the organ involved. Microscopic findings include caseous necrosis surrounded by epithelioid and giant cells. TB can spread locally, via lymphatics or bloodstream to cause extrapulmonary or miliary disease. Organ involvement and response depends on factors like bacterial load, host immunity, and previous exposure.
1) A 27-month old girl presented with worsening cough and fever for two weeks. Imaging showed a large right-sided pleural effusion and empyema.
2) CT chest revealed a large encysted pleural collection, broncho-pleural fistula, and compression of the right lung. A chest tube was inserted which drained purulent fluid.
3) Antibiotics were started and adjusted based on cultures. The child improved with chest physiotherapy and antibiotics but required a prolonged course of over 3 weeks due to complications.
Approach to a patient with fever of unknown origin sunil kumar daha
Please find the power point on Approach to a patient with fever of unknown origin . I tried to present it on understandable way and all the contents are reviewed by experts and from very reliable references. Thank you
Adjunctive corticosteroid therapy in tuberculosis managementMohit Aggarwal
This document discusses the use of adjunctive corticosteroid therapy in the management of tuberculosis. It provides guidance on when corticosteroids may be beneficial, such as in tuberculous meningitis, pericarditis, and adrenal insufficiency. It also notes potential indications and contraindications for different forms of tuberculosis and outlines dosage regimens for corticosteroid therapy in tuberculous meningitis and pericarditis. The document concludes that corticosteroids can improve outcomes when used adjunctively with antitubercular therapy in certain severe forms of tuberculosis but are generally not recommended for pulmonary tuberculosis alone.
- Childhood tuberculosis is challenging to diagnose due to difficulties in confirming infection status and obtaining bacteriological confirmation.
- Risk of developing active TB is highest in the first two years of life, with disseminated disease and mortality also more common in young children.
- Diagnosis relies on clinical features, radiology, tuberculin skin testing, and bacteriological confirmation through sputum/gastric aspirate sampling and culture.
- Treatment guidelines in India recommend 6 months of chemotherapy for all childhood contacts of active TB cases, and clinically diagnosed cases can now begin treatment if confirmation testing is negative.
This document discusses pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO). It begins by defining PUO according to old and new definitions. It then expands the new definition to include categories like nosocomial PUO, neutropenic PUO, and HIV-associated PUO. The document goes on to discuss the causes of PUO in different regions and time periods, with infectious diseases like tuberculosis being very common. It also outlines the evaluation and diagnostic approach for PUO, including relevant laboratory tests, physical exam findings, and potential etiologies.
Pertussis, or whooping cough, is an acute infectious disease caused by the bacteria Bordetella pertussis. It is characterized by a hundred day cough with an insidious onset of mild fever and irritating cough that develops into loud whooping sounds upon inspiration. It primarily affects infants and preschool children, with higher incidence and fatality among females. Transmission occurs through droplet infection or direct contact. Treatment involves erythromycin for confirmed cases and their contacts. Active immunization with DPT vaccine is recommended in three doses plus a booster.
This document provides information on pertussis (whooping cough), including its causative agents, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and references. Pertussis is caused by Bordetella pertussis and related bacteria. It is highly contagious and while vaccination has reduced cases and deaths, it remains endemic. Presentation varies by age but commonly involves paroxysmal coughing fits. Treatment involves antibiotics in early stages and supportive care. Prevention centers on vaccination with DPT or DTaP.
The document discusses the approach to cough and its management. It defines cough and describes the cough reflex mechanism. Cough can be initiated voluntarily or involuntarily and involves both afferent and efferent pathways. Cough receptors are located in various areas including the pharynx, sinuses, stomach and ears. The cause of cough can be extra-pulmonary. A careful history regarding onset, character, production, timing and associated symptoms is important to narrow the diagnosis. Acute, recurrent and chronic cough have different etiologies depending on the patient's age. Proper diagnosis involves considering clinical features, sputum examination and treatment response.
Community acquired pneumonia is a major cause of childhood morbidity and mortality worldwide, especially in developing countries. In India, acute respiratory infections account for 24% of the disease burden and 13% of deaths in children under 5 years of age. Pneumonia is commonly caused by pathogens like Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus. Clinical features include fever, cough, difficulty breathing, and fast breathing. Chest x-rays are not always needed for diagnosis. Severity is assessed using WHO criteria to determine appropriate treatment setting and antibiotics. Supportive care includes oxygen and fluids. Antibiotics are typically given for 5-7 days but longer for severe or staphylococcal pneumonia
This document discusses fever of unknown origin (FUO) in children. It defines FUO as a fever over 38°C that cannot be explained after 3 weeks of outpatient evaluation or 1 week of inpatient evaluation. Potential causes are divided into infectious and non-infectious categories. A thorough history, physical exam, and targeted investigations are important to identify the cause. Based on patient location and immune status, FUO can be further classified as classic, healthcare-associated, immune deficient, or HIV-related FUO. The most common causes vary according to these classifications.
This document provides information on meningococcal infection. It begins by defining meningococcal infection and describing its causative agent, Neisseria meningitidis. It then covers the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical forms, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of meningococcal infection. Key points include that it is transmitted via air droplets and can cause meningitis, meningococcemia, or both. Clinical features depend on the form but may include fever, rash, headache and vomiting. Diagnosis involves examining cerebrospinal fluid which shows pleocytosis. Meningococcal infection is a serious public health issue worldwide.
Non-resolving pneumonia can have several causes, including misdiagnosis of the pathogen, host factors like comorbidities or immune deficiencies, or development of complications from the initial infection. Normal resolution of pneumonia involves improvement within 3-5 days, while slow resolution may take over a month. Factors like age, severity of illness, and the infectious agent can impact the rate of resolution. Evaluation of non-resolving cases should consider multidrug-resistant bacteria, non-bacterial pathogens, underlying host conditions, or non-infectious mimickers of pneumonia.
1. Meningococcal infection, caused by Neisseria meningitidis, manifests as meningitis or septicemia. It is a serious and life-threatening disease, especially in children.
2. N. meningitidis is a gram-negative coccus that colonizes the nasopharynx initially before invading the bloodstream and meninges. Virulence factors like capsular polysaccharides and pili aid in invasion and evading the immune system.
3. Diagnosis involves identifying the organism from blood or CSF cultures. Treatment involves antibiotics like ceftriaxone or penicillin. Outcomes range from full recovery to death, with purpura fulminans carrying the
Community Acquired Pneumonia is an inflammatory lung condition caused by infection. It is defined as pneumonia occurring outside of a hospital setting. Respiratory infections are the leading cause of doctor visits. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common pathogen identified, causing around 46% of cases. Risk factors include older age, smoking, lung disease, and conditions that impair immunity or clearance of secretions. Diagnosis involves assessing severity, likely pathogens, and testing sputum, blood, or urine depending on the suspected germ. Most cases are treated initially with antibiotics at home or in the hospital depending on severity. Vaccines can help prevent many types of community acquired pneumonia.
Viral bronchiolitis most commonly affects infants under 6 months and is caused primarily by respiratory syncytial virus. It is characterized by airway inflammation and obstruction. While most cases are mild and self-limiting, risk factors like prematurity, congenital heart disease, and passive smoking can lead to more severe disease requiring hospitalization. Treatment is supportive with oxygen supplementation. Systemic corticosteroids and bronchodilators are not routinely recommended.
Pneumonia in children can be caused by viral or bacterial infections that lead to lung inflammation and fluid-filled alveoli. It is a common cause of death in children under 5 years old. Common bacteria that cause pneumonia include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus. Clinically, pneumonia can be diagnosed by symptoms like fast breathing, chest indrawing, and coarse lung sounds. Chest x-rays can reveal lung infiltrates. Treatment involves antibiotics, oxygen, and managing symptoms. Vaccines help prevent acute respiratory infections that can lead to pneumonia.
Primary tuberculosis occurs during initial infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is usually mild and asymptomatic, but can sometimes cause flu-like symptoms. Left untreated, the bacteria infect lung macrophages and lymph nodes, triggering an immune response. Primary tuberculosis most commonly affects infants and children under 5. It may result in positive tuberculin skin tests or lung abnormalities on chest x-ray. The infection forms small granulomas called tubercles in the lungs that later heal but remain visible on x-rays. During latency, the person cannot transmit tuberculosis. Treatment requires multiple antibiotics taken regularly for at least 6 months.
The Walgreen Timetable predicts that pulmonary tuberculosis can manifest within months of primary infection, while miliary and meningeal tuberculosis typically occur 2-6 months later. TB adenitis usually develops 3-9 months after infection, while bones and joints tuberculosis can take several years, and renal and genital tuberculosis may take over a decade to manifest. Pulmonary lesions from reactivation of dormant foci take years after primary infection.
Equity and Empowerment_S. Shannon_10.17.13CORE Group
This document discusses equity and empowerment through community ownership of health. It celebrates the 40th anniversary of "Where There Is No Doctor" and the 35th anniversary of the Alma-Ata Declaration of Primary Health Care. The WHO has identified five key elements to achieving health for all: universal coverage, service delivery based on needs, public policy integrating health across sectors, collaborative leadership, and stakeholder participation. The document outlines principles and practices of primary health care since 1978 and notes that true primary health care is more than just the absence of a health system. It discusses challenges in both rural and urban communities and roles for community health workers in areas like non-communicable diseases and early childhood development. New technologies also present opportunities
Childhood tuberculosis treatment remains challenging due to issues with accurately diagnosing and dosing children. While guidelines recommend increasing medication dosages for children, they fail to address how to improve diagnostic accuracy and develop child-specific drug formulations tailored to a child's age and size. More research is needed to develop methods to better diagnose and treat tuberculosis in children.
Childhood TB: Clinical presentation of childhood tuberculosisPiLNAfrica
Childhood TB was written to enable healthcare workers to learn about the primary care of children with tuberculosis. It covers: introduction to TB infection, the clinical presentation, diagnosis, management and prevention of tuberculosis in children
C:\Users\Lg\Documents\öZge\Tbc\Tb Net\Web\Barcelona 2009 Bk PtbnetOzge Yilmaz
This document discusses tuberculosis (TB) in children in Europe. It notes that while childhood TB accounts for about 10-15% of global TB cases, data on childhood TB is not systematically recorded across European countries. There is variation in clinical practices for prevention and treatment of childhood TB between countries. The document proposes creating a network called the ptbnet to improve understanding and management of childhood TB in Europe by facilitating collaboration between pediatric TB experts. The ptbnet was founded in 2009 and aims to enhance knowledge of pediatric TB, conduct collaborative research studies, and establish best practices for diagnosis and treatment of TB in children.
Childhood Tuberculosis and Community Healthcare_Alan Talens_5.8.14CORE Group
This document provides guidance on integrating childhood tuberculosis (TB) screening and treatment into existing community-based child health care programs. It emphasizes asking about TB contact for children presenting with cough, fever, HIV, or malnutrition. Existing programs like IMCI and CCM could incorporate checking for TB signs and referring suspected cases. Steps are outlined to advocate updating guidelines, improve quality of care at all levels for childhood TB, strengthen community and health facility partnerships, and integrate TB promotion with other child health practices. The conclusion states that integrating pediatric TB screening and management into community health programs is essential to reduce child deaths from TB.
Childhood TB: Diagnosis of childhood tuberculosisPiLNAfrica
Childhood TB was written to enable healthcare workers to learn about the primary care of children with tuberculosis. It covers: introduction to TB infection, the clinical presentation, diagnosis, management and prevention of tuberculosis in children
Common lab investigations in Paediatric Office Practicesre7913
This document discusses common laboratory investigations in pediatric practice, with a focus on the complete blood count (CBC). It provides details on the normal ranges and clinical significance of various CBC components, including white blood cell count and differentials, red blood cell indices, platelet count, and peripheral smear findings. A case example of a child with suspected dengue fever is presented, along with how CBC trends can help monitor the condition and guide management. Guidelines for neonatal septic screening are also reviewed.
Childhood Tuberculosis and Community Healthcare_Steve Graham_5.8.14CORE Group
This document summarizes information about managing childhood tuberculosis (TB), including:
1. Childhood TB often occurs where children live, so community-based approaches are important. Diagnosis can be challenging due to limitations of tests.
2. Risk of developing TB disease is highest for young children and declines with age. BCG vaccination and preventive therapy can reduce risk levels.
3. Studies show screening child contacts of TB cases and providing preventive therapy to those without disease can successfully identify cases and reduce future risk. Vietnam implemented a community contact screening pilot program.
The document analyzes the qualitative responses to tuberculin skin tests in 268 children with and without tuberculosis. It finds that Listeria-type responses, characterized by soft, poorly delineated induration, were more common than Koch-type responses, characterized by hard, painful induration, in tuberculosis patients. Koch-type responses were associated with more severe disease. Negative responses were seen predominantly in neurotuberculosis patients and were associated with malnutrition. The type of response correlated with disease severity and nutritional status, providing qualitative information to aid tuberculosis diagnosis in children.
- Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and mainly affects the lungs, but can spread to other organs. It is transmitted through airborne droplets when infected people cough, sneeze or speak.
- China has the second largest tuberculosis epidemic in the world after India, with over 1.3 million new cases reported each year. Risk factors include poverty, malnutrition, HIV infection, and living/working conditions like overcrowding.
- Tuberculosis infection can either remain latent or progress to active disease. Diagnosis involves tuberculin skin tests, chest x-rays, sputum smears, and culture tests. Standard treatment uses a combination of antibiotics like isoniazid and
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It typically affects the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body. India has a high burden of TB cases, accounting for about 1/5 of global cases. Key factors that influence TB transmission and prevalence include poverty, malnutrition, and overcrowding. Diagnosis involves testing sputum samples for acid-fast bacilli. Treatment requires a multi-drug regimen over a long period of time to prevent drug resistance. Control strategies include case detection and treatment as well as BCG vaccination programs.
1. Clinical manifestations of paediatric tuberculosis can be non-specific and tuberculosis is more difficult to diagnose in children compared to adults. Children are more likely to develop severe or disseminated disease if tuberculosis is undiagnosed or untreated.
2. Diagnosis of tuberculosis in a child is a sentinel event that requires contact investigation to be critical.
3. Congenital tuberculosis transmission from mother to child is rare but carries high risks of neonatal mortality and morbidity, so early diagnosis and treatment of infected newborns is important.
Childhood Tuberculosis and Community Healthcare_Anne Detjen_5.8.14CORE Group
This document discusses integrating tuberculosis (TB) screening and management into community-based primary care for children. It provides the following key points:
1) Children with TB often first present to primary care services, so engaging these services can help identify TB cases and contacts through simple screening questions.
2) Existing community case management frameworks for other diseases can be adapted to include basic TB interventions to increase suspicion of TB and identify at-risk children for referral.
3) Pilot testing is needed to evaluate how many TB suspects and cases in children can be identified by adding simple TB screening questions to integrated community case management algorithms.
This document discusses the need to prioritize childhood tuberculosis (TB) and move towards zero TB deaths in children. It notes that at least half a million children become ill with TB each year and up to 70,000 children die from the disease annually. Children are often not considered for TB testing and diagnosis is difficult, leading to neglect of childhood TB as a public health issue. The document calls for efforts to actively find and treat all people with TB, including integrating TB screening and care into maternal and child health services, prioritizing outreach for children living with HIV, and treating children for TB if they show symptoms and live with someone who has TB.
Childhood Tuberculosis and Community Healthcare_Kechi Achebe_5.8.14CORE Group
- Childhood tuberculosis (TB) is a significant but underrecognized public health problem, with around 500,000 children developing TB annually and 64,000 dying from it. Actual cases are likely higher than reported.
- Children face barriers to accurate TB diagnosis including non-specific symptoms, difficulty obtaining sputum samples, and lack of screening guidelines. Contact tracing of children exposed to TB patients is also lacking.
- Integrating childhood TB screening and management into existing community health platforms could help improve case detection and ensure children complete treatment.
Characteristics of tuberculosis in childrenApple Samsung
This document discusses characteristics of tuberculosis in childhood. It notes that tuberculosis has the greatest tendency to progress in early childhood, often leading to severe forms. Infants are most at risk of the generalized form of TB due to their immature immune systems. Diagnosis is more difficult in children as they often have paucibacillary disease and do not produce sputum. Factors like poverty, malnutrition, HIV, and exposure to mothers with TB increase risk for children.
Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It infects one third of humanity and causes over 1.6 million deaths per year, making it one of the leading causes of death from infectious disease worldwide. The highest case rates are found in Asia, with India, China, and Indonesia having the most cases. Tuberculosis is often found concurrently with HIV infection and about half of those coinfected will develop active TB. Treatment involves a combination of antibiotics over several months, but drug resistance is a major problem, especially in Asia.
The document describes a case of a 7-month-old male child admitted to the hospital with fever and cough for 2 months, respiratory distress for 7 days, and a history of taking broad-spectrum antibiotics for 14 days. On examination, the baby was dyspneic and mildly pale with increased vocal fremitus and resonance in the right upper and middle lobe of the lung. The presentation and examination are consistent with a diagnosis of tuberculosis based on clinical criteria and history of exposure. A full course of anti-tuberculosis treatment is recommended.
The document describes a case of a 7-month-old male child admitted to the hospital with fever and cough for 2 months, respiratory distress for 7 days, and a history of taking broad-spectrum antibiotics for 14 days. On examination, the baby was dyspneic and mildly pale with increased vocal fremitus and resonance in the right upper and middle lobe of the lung. The presentation and examination are consistent with a diagnosis of tuberculosis based on clinical criteria and history of exposure. A full course of anti-tuberculosis treatment is recommended.
TB 2013_Diagnosis and clinical presentationRamadan Arafa
This document discusses the clinical presentation and diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB). It presents 3 case studies and discusses the typical symptoms, risk factors, and diagnostic approach for TB. Key points include: 1) TB most commonly presents with nonspecific symptoms like fever, night sweats, and weight loss; 2) diagnostic approach involves sputum smear, culture, chest x-ray and consideration of risk factors; 3) delay in diagnosis can increase transmission and disease severity.
This document provides an overview of pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). It defines TB as an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which primarily affects the lungs. TB is spread through airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. The document discusses the pathogenesis, stages, risk factors, signs and symptoms, diagnostic tests, medical management including drug therapy, and nursing care of patients with pulmonary TB. It also covers complications, education on respiratory hygiene and home care considerations for patients.
Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis. It is transmitted through inhalation of droplets from infected individuals. In the Philippines it is one of the leading causes of morbidity. Risk factors include close contact with active cases, immunosuppression, malnutrition, and other diseases like HIV. Diagnosis involves tuberculin skin testing, sputum smear and culture, chest x-rays, and biopsy when needed. Treatment consists of a combination of antibiotics over several months.
Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis. It is transmitted through inhalation of droplets from infected individuals. In the Philippines it is one of the leading causes of morbidity. Risk factors include close contact with active cases, immunosuppression, malnutrition, and other diseases like HIV. Diagnosis involves tuberculin skin testing, sputum smear and culture, chest x-rays, and biopsy when needed. Treatment consists of a combination of antibiotics over several months.
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It most commonly affects the lungs. Ethiopia has a high burden of TB and is one of 22 high burden countries globally. TB prevalence and incidence in Ethiopia are 211 and 224 per 100,000 population respectively. Diagnosis involves medical history, physical exam, tuberculin skin test, chest x-ray, and bacteriological tests. Treatment involves a combination of antibiotics taken for 6-24 months depending on type of TB. Public health measures like directly observed therapy are important to prevent drug resistance and improve treatment outcomes.
This document summarizes the pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of tuberculosis. It discusses how Mycobacterium tuberculosis is inhaled and can cause either latent or active TB depending on host defenses. Active TB can be pulmonary or extrapulmonary in various organs. Diagnosis involves tuberculin skin testing, chest x-ray, sputum smear/culture, and biopsy when needed. Treatment involves anti-TB medications for 6-12 months depending on the type and severity of TB. Complications like drug resistance and immune reconstitution syndrome are also reviewed.
The document discusses the history, causes, transmission, diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis (TB). It describes how TB is caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria and is usually transmitted through airborne droplets when infected people cough, sneeze or speak. The diagnosis and treatment of latent TB versus active TB disease is also explained, noting that active TB causes symptoms and can be infectious while latent TB does not cause symptoms but the bacteria are still present.
This document provides an overview of pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis. It discusses the microbiology of M. tuberculosis and describes the pathogenesis and typical presentations of pulmonary TB, including epidemiology, transmission, risk factors, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment. It also reviews common forms of extrapulmonary TB, such as TB lymphadenitis, pleural-pericardial-peritoneal TB, CNS tuberculosis, skeletal TB, miliary TB, and multidrug-resistant TB. The take-home message is that TB remains a global health burden that can affect multiple body systems and requires a high index of suspicion for diagnosis.
The document provides information on pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), including its causes, risk factors, transmission, diagnostic testing, treatment, and nursing management. PTB is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and primarily affects the lungs. It is transmitted via airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Diagnostic testing includes a tuberculin skin test, sputum cultures, chest x-rays, and other tests. Treatment involves a multi-drug regimen for 6-12 months to prevent transmission and progression of the disease. Nursing care focuses on isolation precautions, education, and ensuring adherence to the medication regimen.
1. Leptospirosis is caused by the bacteria Leptospira interrogans, which is transmitted through contact with infected animal urine or tissues. Common symptoms include jaundice, hemorrhage, and acute renal failure. Diagnosis is challenging due to low success of isolation and unreliable direct demonstration. Early antibiotic treatment is important to prevent complications.
2. Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is spread through airborne droplets from the lungs of infected individuals. Symptoms include hemoptysis and anorexia. Diagnosis involves tuberculin skin testing, chest radiography, and sputum smear/culture. Standard treatment is a multi-drug
Tuberculosis is caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is estimated that one-third of the world's population has latent TB. The majority of active cases occur in poor nations. TB is transmitted via inhalation of aerosolized droplets from infected individuals and initially infects the lungs. Diagnosis involves sputum smear and culture, with drug treatment recommendations varying based on disease severity and prior treatment. Controlling the epidemic relies on improved detection and treatment of both active and latent infections.
Tuberculosis (TB) in children can be difficult to diagnose due to non-specific symptoms, low bacterial loads, and inability to produce sputum. The document discusses the pathogenesis and immune response to TB in children. Key points include that children have a less developed innate and adaptive immune response, leading to atypical presentations. Diagnosis relies on clinical history of exposure and symptoms, imaging, and microbiological confirmation from specimens like gastric aspirates since sputum samples are often smear-negative. HIV co-infection further complicates the diagnosis of childhood TB.
- Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis bacteria. It is transmitted through inhalation of droplets from an infected person.
- Diagnosis involves the Mantoux tuberculin skin test, sputum smears and cultures, and chest x-rays. Treatment depends on whether a person has latent infection, active disease, or a history of previous treatment.
- For new cases of active pulmonary TB, treatment typically involves two months of four drugs followed by four months of two drugs. For latent infection, nine months of isoniazid is usually recommended. Preventive therapy aims to reduce the risk of developing active TB in the future.
- M. tuberculosis is spread through inhaled aerosolized droplets from infected individuals and lodges in the lungs, initiating a macrophage and lymphocyte response. Granulomas form to wall off infection.
- Granulomas can aggregate to form primary lesions or spread to lymph nodes. Fibrosis then limits spread and lesions may calcify. Rarely, infection may disseminate hematogenously.
- Diagnosis involves sputum microscopy, culture and chest imaging. Treatment requires a multi-drug regimen over 6-12 months to prevent resistance, though some adverse effects can occur.
Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is the seventh leading cause of death worldwide. M. tuberculosis can infect any organ but commonly causes pulmonary or latent infections. It is transmitted through inhalation of aerosolized droplets. Once inhaled, macrophages recruit lymphocytes to form granulomas around the bacteria. Diagnosis involves medical history, physical exam, tuberculin skin test, chest x-ray, and sputum tests. Treatment requires a multi-drug regimen to prevent drug resistance. Primary tuberculosis commonly affects children while secondary tuberculosis is a reactivation of dormant bacteria that typically causes apical lesions in adults.
Tuberculosis is a potentially fatal contagious lung infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that can spread through coughing. It is a major global health issue, with over 10 million new cases in 2016 according to the WHO. TB can affect any part of the body but most commonly the lungs. It is classified as pulmonary TB if in the lungs or extra pulmonary TB if in other organs. Diagnosis involves tests of sputum, tuberculin skin tests, chest x-rays, and the LAM urine test which is especially useful for HIV+ patients. Treatment involves antibiotics taken for at least 6 months to prevent drug resistance, though multi-drug resistant strains exist.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially fatal contagious disease that mainly affects the lungs. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Globally in 2011-2016, there were an estimated 8.7 million new TB cases. TB can affect any part of the body but most commonly the lungs. It is treated with a combination of antibiotic drugs over a period of 6-9 months. Strict adherence to treatment is important to cure the disease and prevent drug resistance.
Long term medical morbidities following lower spinal surgery in childrenGopakumar Hariharan
The presentation provides an overview of medical morbidities following lower spinal surgery in children. The discussion is build upon a postoperative case scenario, however the information could be extrapolated to other lower spinal pathologies.
This document provides information on the diagnosis and management of asthma in children. It begins with the pathophysiology of asthma including airway inflammation, variable airflow obstruction, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Signs and symptoms of asthma include wheezing, coughing, difficulty breathing and triggers such as exercise or cold air. The document outlines the diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and classifications of asthma severity. Management is discussed for acute exacerbations and long term control, including reliever medications, oral steroids, and patient education. Guidelines from the Royal Hobart Hospital and Royal Children's Hospital are referenced. The document concludes with a case scenario of a 7 year old child presenting with breathing difficulty, where the focus is on diagnosis of asthma and
Constipation is a common condition in children that can have significant impacts on quality of life. It is usually functional and caused by behavioral, psychological, or dietary factors. The main symptoms are infrequent bowel movements occurring less than every 2-3 days and hard stools that are difficult or painful to pass. Treatment involves disimpaction followed by maintenance therapy using laxatives like polyethylene glycol or lactulose, along with behavioral modifications and dietary changes like increased fiber intake. Treatment may need to be continued for 6 months to a year to prevent recurrence of symptoms.
Children with pneumonia presenting with prolonged fever, tachypnea, pain on abdominal palpation and high serum C-reactive protein levels are at risk for parapneumonic empyema. Initial management involves antibiotics, oxygen supplementation if needed, and analgesia. For moderate or large effusions, thoracentesis with continued antibiotics is recommended. Fibrinolytics or video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) may be used for loculated effusions. VATS has advantages over tube drainage like shorter hospital stay and better lung re-expansion. Surgical options are considered if initial management fails.
Therapeutic hypothermia involves cooling newborn infants to 33-34°C for 72 hours to reduce brain injury from hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). Large clinical trials found cooling significantly reduced death and disability in infants with moderate-severe HIE. The mechanism involves reducing brain energy needs and excitotoxicity. Both active cooling devices and passive cooling with water/gel packs can achieve target temperature if monitored closely. Initiation within 6 hours and maintenance of core temperature in the target range are essential for benefit.
The document discusses hypotonia in infants and provides details on:
- The differential diagnosis of hypotonia includes both benign and serious conditions.
- Hypotonia can be caused by central nervous system issues or peripheral nervous system issues. Central causes account for 60-80% of cases.
- The evaluation of an infant with hypotonia includes a detailed history, physical exam focusing on tone and strength, and initial screening tests. Further testing may include imaging, genetic testing, and metabolic testing depending on exam findings.
This document discusses neonatal cardiac failure, including the pathophysiology of atrioventricular septal defect. It notes that the neonatal myocardium is anatomically different from the mature heart, with less organized myofibrils and contractile efficiency. This makes the neonatal heart more dependent on compensatory mechanisms like neurohormonal activation and the Frank-Starling response. Medical management aims to reduce afterload and preload on the heart through diuretics and ACE inhibitors while providing respiratory support. Surgical intervention may be needed to correct underlying structural defects.
Pictorial and detailed description of patellar instability with sign and symptoms and how to diagnose , what investigations you should go with and how to approach with treatment options . I have presented this slide in my 2nd year junior residency in orthopedics at LLRM medical college Meerut and got good reviews for it
After getting it read you will definitely understand the topic.
Nutritional deficiency Disorder are problems in india.
It is very important to learn about Indian child's nutritional parameters as well the Disease related to alteration in their Nutrition.
Giloy in Ayurveda - Classical Categorization and SynonymsPlanet Ayurveda
Giloy, also known as Guduchi or Amrita in classical Ayurvedic texts, is a revered herb renowned for its myriad health benefits. It is categorized as a Rasayana, meaning it has rejuvenating properties that enhance vitality and longevity. Giloy is celebrated for its ability to boost the immune system, detoxify the body, and promote overall wellness. Its anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and antioxidant properties make it a staple in managing conditions like fever, diabetes, and stress. The versatility and efficacy of Giloy in supporting health naturally highlight its importance in Ayurveda. At Planet Ayurveda, we provide a comprehensive range of health services and 100% herbal supplements that harness the power of natural ingredients like Giloy. Our products are globally available and affordable, ensuring that everyone can benefit from the ancient wisdom of Ayurveda. If you or your loved ones are dealing with health issues, contact Planet Ayurveda at 01725214040 to book an online video consultation with our professional doctors. Let us help you achieve optimal health and wellness naturally.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/RvdYsTzgQq8
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/ECILGWtgZko
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14...Donc Test
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF SPECIAL POPULATIONS: GERIATRICS E7shruti jagirdar
Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
likely to have significant use in the elderly, either because the disease intended
to be treated is characteristically a disease of aging ( e.g., Alzheimer's disease) or
because the population to be treated is known to include substantial numbers of
geriatric patients (e.g., hypertension).
Discover the benefits of homeopathic medicine for irregular periods with our guide on 5 common remedies. Learn how these natural treatments can help regulate menstrual cycles and improve overall menstrual health.
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5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT or Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that serves a range of roles in the human body. It is sometimes referred to as the happy chemical since it promotes overall well-being and happiness.
It is mostly found in the brain, intestines, and blood platelets.
5-HT is utilised to transport messages between nerve cells, is known to be involved in smooth muscle contraction, and adds to overall well-being and pleasure, among other benefits. 5-HT regulates the body's sleep-wake cycles and internal clock by acting as a precursor to melatonin.
It is hypothesised to regulate hunger, emotions, motor, cognitive, and autonomic processes.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s PerspectiveGolden Helix
Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
The purpose of this webcast is to:
Discuss and demonstrate the approaches with array and NGS genotyping methods for star allele calling to prep for downstream analysis.
Following genotyping, explore alternative tertiary workflow concepts in VarSeq to handle PGx reporting.
Moreover, we will include insights users will need to consider when validating their PGx workflow for all possible star alleles and options you have for automating your PGx analysis for large number of samples. Please join us for a session dedicated to the application of star allele genotyping and subsequent PGx workflows in our VarSeq software.
Gene therapy can be broadly defined as the transfer of genetic material to cure a disease or at least to improve the clinical status of a patient.
One of the basic concepts of gene therapy is to transform viruses into genetic shuttles, which will deliver the gene of interest into the target cells.
Safe methods have been devised to do this, using several viral and non-viral vectors.
In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or surgery.
The biggest hurdle faced by medical research in gene therapy is the availability of effective gene-carrying vectors that meet all of the following criteria:
Protection of transgene or genetic cargo from degradative action of systemic and endonucleases,
Delivery of genetic material to the target site, i.e., either cell cytoplasm or nucleus,
Low potential of triggering unwanted immune responses or genotoxicity,
Economical and feasible availability for patients .
Viruses are naturally evolved vehicles that efficiently transfer their genes into host cells.
Choice of viral vector is dependent on gene transfer efficiency, capacity to carry foreign genes, toxicity, stability, immune responses towards viral antigens and potential viral recombination.
There are a wide variety of vectors used to deliver DNA or oligo nucleotides into mammalian cells, either in vitro or in vivo.
The most common vector system based on retroviruses, adenoviruses, herpes simplex viruses, adeno associated viruses.
Travel Clinic Cardiff: Health Advice for International TravelersNX Healthcare
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The Children are very vulnerable to get affected with respiratory disease.
In our country, the respiratory Disease conditions are consider as major cause for mortality and Morbidity in Child.
1. Early
CHILDHOOD TUBERCULOSIS
Gopakumar Hariharan
Senior Registrar, NPICU
Royal Hobart Hospital,
Tasmania, Australia
2. Introduction
• Case scenario
• Mode of transmission
• Pathophysiology
• Investigations
• Treatment
• Complications
3. Case Scenario
• 3 months old
• Apnea and respiratory distress
• CXR- Miliary patttern suggestive of TB
• Mum- open case- cavitating lesion of lungs – AFB
positive
• Choroid Tubercles
• On ATT ; Managed in Adult ICU
4. Tuberculosis
• Chronic infection – Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis
• Major public health problem
• Pulmonary and extrapulmonary
6. Portal of entry for tuberculosis
• Inhalation of Tubercle bacilli in >95% (M.TB) – Reservoir(
infected person)
• Ingestion of milk containing Bovine Tubercle bacilli (M.
bovis)
• Contamination of superficial skin or mucous membrane lesion
with tubercle bacilli
• Congenital infection when mother has
lymphohematogenous spread during pregnancy OR
tuberculous endometritis
7. Epidemiology
• Host Factors
• Age : all ages affected, congenital is rare
• Malnutrition : more susceptible
• Intercurrent infections : e.g. measles, whooping cough
• Environment : overcrowding, inadequate ventilation,
damp, insanitary and unhygienic conditions
8. Primary tuberculous infection
Primary Focus (Ghon’s focus)
• At the site of first implantation
• Usually single and Subpleural
• In most, - heals and disappears, or
- fibroses or calcifies.
Localized inflammatory Process
9. Primary complex
Primary Complex:
• Primary focus + Hilar
lymphnodes + draining
lymphatics ( Tuberculous
lymphangitis)
• Complications arise more
commonly from regional
adenitis than from the primary
focus
10. Progressive primary tuberculosis
• Apparently healed focus or nodes may contain viable
organisms for many years.
• During 1st 4-8 weeks, organisms are disseminated in the blood
stream directly or via lymphatic duct – involves multiple
organs
• Progression of TB depends on the age of the child, number of
tubercle bacilli, and host resistance ( HIV )
11. Complications of the primary
focus
1. Rupture of focus into
pleural space causing
serous effusion ( more
than 5 years)
2. Rupture of focus into
bronchus causing
cavitation
3. Enlarged focus,
sometimes laminated or
“coin” shadow
12. Complications of regional nodes
1. Incomplete (ball-valve)
bronchial obstruction,
emphysema of middle & lower
lobes
2. Complete bronchial
obstruction, collapse of right
lower lobe
3. Erosion of node into
bronchus & segmental
consolidation
4. Rupture of node into
pericardium: tuberculous
pericardial effusion
13. Bronchial complications
1. Stricture of bronchus at
site of erosion
2. Cylindrical bronchiectasis
in area of old collapse
3. Wedge shadow: contracture
& fibrosis of segmental
lesion
4. Linear scar of fibrosis
following segmental lesion
Endobronchial TB – wheeze
Fever, troublesome cough, dyspnea, wheezing and cyanosis
14. Symptoms
• Primary complex – mild fever, anorexia, weight
loss, decreased activity, cough
• Progressive primary complex – high grade fever,
cough.
• Expectoration and hemoptysis – usually associated
with cavity and ulceration of bronchus.
• Abnormal chest signs – decreased air entry,
dullness, creps
15. Miliary tuberculosis
• Most common within 1st 3 to 6 months after
infection
• Due to heavy hematogenous spread of tubercle
bacilli
• Onset: Insidious, with
Fever and weight loss
Palpable liver and/or spleen
Tachypnoea with normal chest findings
16. Miliary tuberculosis
• Hematogenous dissemination - progressive
development of small lesions throughout the body,
with tubercles in the
• lung, spleen, liver,
• bone marrow, heart, pancreas
• brain, choroid, skin
Radiologic diagnosis:
• “Snow storm” appearance (Multiple small lung
nodules 1mm size and above in both lung fields).
19. Tuberculous meningitis
Rupture of a subcortical
caseous focus (Rich’s) into
the subarachnoid space.
Inflammatory exudates form
about base of brain and
along cerebral vessels as
they pass over hemispheres.
Raised intracranial pressure
due to increased secretion
of CSF
Adhesions along base and roof
of 4th ventricles lead to
obstruction to CSF flow and
hydrocephalus,
.
Multiple cranial nerve
involvement - III VI VII and
optic chiasma.
Endarteritis – Neurological
deficits
25. Direct tests for tuberculosis
• Ziehl-Neelsen staining for AFB in
clinical specimens (sputum, gastric juice,
biopsy)
• AFB culture on Lowenstein-Jensen solid
medium (4 weeks)
• PCR amplification of targeted
mycobacterial DNA sequences
• DNA probes: fluorescence in situ
hybridization assays
26. Other tests
• PCR – rapid results ( antigen/ antibodies)
• Serodiagnosis – ELISA
• QuantiFERON- TB test (QFT) – for diagnosing
latent TB. Based on IFN-gamma released from
sensitized lymphocytes.
ELISPOT
27. Mantoux Test
• MC used test for establishing
diagnosis of TB in children
• Delayed type hypersensitivity
reaction
• 0.1 ml of 5 TU PPD is injected
intradermally into the volar aspect
of the forearm (or 2 TU of PPD
RT 23)
• A weal of 5 mm should be raised
• Reaction is read after 48 – 72 hrs
• Look for induration and erythema
28. Observation and Inference
• 48-72 hours later diameter of induration is measured
transversely to the long axis of the forearm.
• Induration > 10mm is suggestive of natural infection.
• 5-10 mm borderline; considered positive in
immunocompromised host
• <5mm Negative mantoux test does not rule out TB
29. False Negatives
• Test done in incubation period of TB
• For several weeks following measles
• During Corticosteroid therapy
• Overwhelming TB infection (miliary, meningits)
• Severe Malnutrition
• If given Sub Cutaneous instead of Intra dermal
• Inactive Tuberculin
30. Guidelines for presumptive diagnosis of tuberculosis
Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12: 499-504)
A combination of at least 3 of the following:
• Symptoms/signs s/o TB: (fever > 1 mo., cough,
weight loss)
• History of close contact with TB
• Positive tuberculin skin test (Mantoux > 10 mm)
• Sputum / gastric juice AFB +ve
• Lymph node / tissue biopsy positivity
• Radiologic features suggestive of TB
• Response to Anti TB Therapy
History of contact = any child who lives in a household with an adult taking ATT or
has taken therapy in the past 2 years
31. Radiology
• In extra pulmonary TB , presence of lesions on chest
radiograph supports diagnosis.
• Enlarged lymph nodes in hila, right paratracheal region
• Consolidation in progressive primary disease –
heterogenous, poorly marginated with predilection to apical or
posterior segments of upper lobe or superior segments of
lower lobe.
• Bronchiectasis
• Pleural effusion
• Miliary TB
32. Treatment for TB
1st line anti-tuberculous drugs
• Isoniazid H
• Rifampicin R
• Pyrazinamide Z
• Ethambutol E
• Streptomycin S
33. Phases of Treatment
• Intensive Phase
• Eliminate bacterial load
• Prevent emergence of drug resistant strains
• Atleast 3 Bactericidal Drugs used
• Continuation Phase
• Continue and complete therapy
• Atleast 2 Bactericidal drugs used
• Steroids
• Anti inflammatory effect – miliary, peritonitis, pericarditis
• TB meningitis
34. Management of Active TB
( NICE guidelines)
Progressive Pulmonary Tuberculosis and multiple
LNE-
2 HRZE + 4 HR ( 6 month )
Meningeal TB
2 HRZE + 10 HR +Prednisolone
/Dexamethasone
Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg, maximum 40 mg with
gradual withdrawal of the glucocorticoid
considered, starting within 2–3 weeks of initiation
35.
36. The 5 components of DOTS
Political & administrative commitment
Diagnosis by good quality sputum microscopy
Adequate supply of good quality drugs
Directly observed treatment
Systematic monitoring & Accountability
37. Prevention
Children with pulmonary TB disease are
rarely infectious due to
• Their pattern of disease,
• Low bacillary load and
• Lack of coughing force
38. Diagnosing latent TB
• Mantoux testing - household contacts (aged 5 years
and older) of all people with active TB and non-household
contacts (other close contacts for
example, in workplaces and schools).
• Consider Interferon-gamma testing - Mantoux
testing shows positive results, or in people for whom
Mantoux testing may be less reliable, for example
BCG-vaccinated people. ( high specificity)
39. Contacts – outbreak situation
• Active community surveillance
• Large numbers of people may need to be screened,
consider a single interferon-gamma test for people
aged 5 years and older.
• Preventive Therapy In Mantoux Positive : 6 HR
40. Healthcare workers
• Offer a Mantoux test to new employees who will be
in contact with patients or clinical materials if the
employees:
• Have not had BCG vaccination (for example, they
are without scar, other documentation or reliable
history).
• Mantoux test is positive, offer an interferon-gamma
test
41. BCG vaccination for
healthcare workers
• BCG vaccination should be offered to healthcare
workers, irrespective of age, who:
• are previously unvaccinated (that is, without adequate
documentation or a characteristic scar), and
• will have contact with patients or clinical
materials, and
• are Mantoux (or interferon-gamma) negative.
42. BCG vaccination for contacts
of people with active TB
• BCG vaccination should be offered to Mantoux-negative
contacts of people with respiratory TB if
they are previously unvaccinated and are:
• Aged 35 or younger
• aged 36 and older and a healthcare or laboratory
worker who has contact with patients or clinical
materials
43. Infection control
Three levels of isolation for infection control in
hospital settings:
• Negative-pressure rooms
• Single rooms - not negative pressure but are vented
to the outside of the building
• Beds on a ward
44. Isolation guidelines( NICE)
• Should be given a single room. Preferably not
admitted
• Visitors to a child with TB in hospital - screened
as part of contact tracing, and kept separate from
other patients until they have been excluded as the
source of infection
• Isolation for 2 weeks of treatment
45. Barrier nursing
Healthcare workers caring for people with TB should
not use masks, gowns or barrier nursing techniques
unless:
MDR TB is suspected
Aerosol-generating/ cough inducing(
bronchoscopy/sputum production) procedures are
being performed.
46. ?Long term follow up
Regular follow-up clinic visits after treatment
completion were unnecessary.
Patients should be advised to watch for symptoms of
relapse and to contact the TB service rapidly if the
symptoms occur.
47. Multidrug resistant Tuberculosis
• A minority of cases, 6–8% in England and Wales, are
resistant to one of the antibiotics.
• Isoniazid and rifampicin are ineffective in 1% of
cases.
• These are said to be cases of multidrug-resistant
(MDR) TB, which requires special treatment and
careful monitoring.
48. Summary
• Pathophysiology of childhood Tuberculosis
• Various clinical manifestations
• Management
• Treatment
• Preventive measures
• Surveillance
49. “Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be
understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that
we may fear less.”
― Marie Curie