The document provides information on groundwater including:
1. Groundwater is water found underground in soil and rock cracks and spaces called aquifers. It is stored and moves slowly through these geologic formations.
2. Groundwater exists below the land surface in saturated zones called aquifers. The upper boundary is the water table. Wells tap into groundwater by drawing water up from aquifers.
3. Groundwater is an important natural resource and water source where surface water is scarce. Proper treatment is needed for both groundwater and surface water to provide safe drinking water.
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing rock. Water-bearing rocks are permeable, meaning that they have openings that liquids and gases can pass through. Sedimentary rock such as sandstone, as well as sand and gravel, are examples of water-bearing rock.
This document provides an overview of various groundwater exploration methods, including surface and subsurface techniques. Surface methods involve minimal facilities and include geomorphological analysis of landforms, geological and structural mapping, soil and vegetation analysis, remote sensing, and surface geophysical methods like electrical resistivity and seismic surveys. Subsurface methods like borehole logging and test drilling provide direct observations but are more expensive. Together, a multi-method approach can be used to explore groundwater resources and locate potential zones for development.
An aquifer is an underground layer of permeable rock or sediment that contains water. Aquifers can be confined or unconfined. A confined aquifer is separated from the surface by an impermeable layer, while an unconfined aquifer allows water to seep directly from the surface above. Natural recharge of unconfined aquifers occurs through downward percolation of excess water, while confined aquifers recharge where the aquifer reaches the surface. Infiltration galleries are underground tunnels constructed with holes to intercept groundwater flowing towards lakes or rivers and collect it for extraction.
Groundwater exists below the Earth's surface within the pore spaces and fractures of rocks and sediments. It originates from rainfall and snowmelt that percolates underground, where it moves slowly through the saturated zone and eventually resurfaces in streams, lakes, or oceans. The movement and storage of groundwater is dependent on the porosity, permeability, and saturation of geological formations. When groundwater is pumped from wells faster than it can recharge, water tables decline and other issues like land subsidence can occur. Groundwater supports various geological features and processes near the surface.
This document provides an introduction and overview of groundwater modeling. It discusses why groundwater modeling is needed for effective groundwater management. It outlines the modeling process, including developing a conceptual model, selecting governing equations, model design, calibration, validation, and using the model for prediction. It describes different types of mathematical models, including analytical, finite difference, and finite element models. It emphasizes that a modeling protocol should establish the modeling purpose and ensure the conceptual model adequately represents the system behavior. The document stresses the importance of calibration, verification, and sensitivity analysis to evaluate a model's ability to reproduce measured conditions and the effects of uncertainty.
Pumping Tests are conducted to examine the aquifer response, under controlled conditions, to the abstraction of water. Hydrogeologists determine the hydraulic characteristics of water-bearing formations, by conducting pumping tests. A pumping test is a practical, reliable method of estimating well performance, well yield, the zone of influence of the well and aquifer characteristics. There is a procedure for conducting pumping tests in wells. This lesson highlights the prevailing methods adopted while conducting pumping tests.
This document provides an overview of ground water hydrology. It defines key terms like aquifers, aquitards, the water table, porosity, permeability and discusses the movement and storage of groundwater. It explains that groundwater is an important source of water, especially in arid areas, and outlines the water balance concept and different zones of subsurface water like the saturated and aeration zones.
Groundwater occurs beneath the Earth's surface in pore spaces and fractures in rocks and sediments. It originates from rainfall and snowmelt percolating into the ground. Groundwater is found everywhere but is usually within 750 meters of the surface. It makes up about 1% of the total water on Earth but 35 times the amount of water in streams and lakes. Groundwater flows through the hydrologic cycle, entering the ground as precipitation and eventually emerging in streams, lakes, or oceans.
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing rock. Water-bearing rocks are permeable, meaning that they have openings that liquids and gases can pass through. Sedimentary rock such as sandstone, as well as sand and gravel, are examples of water-bearing rock.
This document provides an overview of various groundwater exploration methods, including surface and subsurface techniques. Surface methods involve minimal facilities and include geomorphological analysis of landforms, geological and structural mapping, soil and vegetation analysis, remote sensing, and surface geophysical methods like electrical resistivity and seismic surveys. Subsurface methods like borehole logging and test drilling provide direct observations but are more expensive. Together, a multi-method approach can be used to explore groundwater resources and locate potential zones for development.
An aquifer is an underground layer of permeable rock or sediment that contains water. Aquifers can be confined or unconfined. A confined aquifer is separated from the surface by an impermeable layer, while an unconfined aquifer allows water to seep directly from the surface above. Natural recharge of unconfined aquifers occurs through downward percolation of excess water, while confined aquifers recharge where the aquifer reaches the surface. Infiltration galleries are underground tunnels constructed with holes to intercept groundwater flowing towards lakes or rivers and collect it for extraction.
Groundwater exists below the Earth's surface within the pore spaces and fractures of rocks and sediments. It originates from rainfall and snowmelt that percolates underground, where it moves slowly through the saturated zone and eventually resurfaces in streams, lakes, or oceans. The movement and storage of groundwater is dependent on the porosity, permeability, and saturation of geological formations. When groundwater is pumped from wells faster than it can recharge, water tables decline and other issues like land subsidence can occur. Groundwater supports various geological features and processes near the surface.
This document provides an introduction and overview of groundwater modeling. It discusses why groundwater modeling is needed for effective groundwater management. It outlines the modeling process, including developing a conceptual model, selecting governing equations, model design, calibration, validation, and using the model for prediction. It describes different types of mathematical models, including analytical, finite difference, and finite element models. It emphasizes that a modeling protocol should establish the modeling purpose and ensure the conceptual model adequately represents the system behavior. The document stresses the importance of calibration, verification, and sensitivity analysis to evaluate a model's ability to reproduce measured conditions and the effects of uncertainty.
Pumping Tests are conducted to examine the aquifer response, under controlled conditions, to the abstraction of water. Hydrogeologists determine the hydraulic characteristics of water-bearing formations, by conducting pumping tests. A pumping test is a practical, reliable method of estimating well performance, well yield, the zone of influence of the well and aquifer characteristics. There is a procedure for conducting pumping tests in wells. This lesson highlights the prevailing methods adopted while conducting pumping tests.
This document provides an overview of ground water hydrology. It defines key terms like aquifers, aquitards, the water table, porosity, permeability and discusses the movement and storage of groundwater. It explains that groundwater is an important source of water, especially in arid areas, and outlines the water balance concept and different zones of subsurface water like the saturated and aeration zones.
Groundwater occurs beneath the Earth's surface in pore spaces and fractures in rocks and sediments. It originates from rainfall and snowmelt percolating into the ground. Groundwater is found everywhere but is usually within 750 meters of the surface. It makes up about 1% of the total water on Earth but 35 times the amount of water in streams and lakes. Groundwater flows through the hydrologic cycle, entering the ground as precipitation and eventually emerging in streams, lakes, or oceans.
This document contains a 25 question multiple choice test on hydrogeology. It tests knowledge of topics like groundwater flow maps, drinking water standards, well development, aquifer characteristics, drilling methods, types of wells, groundwater investigation techniques, Darcy's law, and more. The questions are in a standard multiple choice format with a single correct answer out of 4 options for each question.
This document summarizes information about ground hydrology and well completion. It discusses the different types of wells, including shallow and deep wells. It also describes various well construction methods, such as digging, boring, and drilling. Additionally, it covers topics like well casing, cementing, gravel packing, and screen placement. Proper well completion is emphasized as being important for maximizing well yield and longevity.
This document discusses hydrogeology, which is the study of groundwater. It begins by explaining the hydrologic cycle, in which water evaporates from bodies of water and transpirates from plants, condenses into clouds and precipitates back to the ground as rain or snow. Some precipitation infiltrates into the ground to become groundwater. The document then discusses groundwater occurrence, movement through aquifers, and factors that influence it like porosity, permeability and lithology. Finally, it describes the vertical distribution of groundwater into the unsaturated zone above the water table and saturated zone below it.
Henry Darcy developed Darcy's law in 1856 based on experiments studying the flow of water through sand filters. Darcy's law states that for laminar flow through saturated soil or porous media, the discharge rate is proportional to the hydraulic gradient. The law is expressed mathematically as Q=KA(h1-h2)/L, where Q is the flow rate, K is the hydraulic conductivity, A is the cross-sectional area, h1 and h2 are the water levels, and L is the distance between them. Darcy's law is valid for laminar flow in saturated, homogeneous, isotropic porous media, but may not apply to turbulent or unsaturated flow conditions. It has wide applications in areas like
The document discusses a course on analyzing pumping tests for groundwater aquifers. The course aims to teach participants how to determine aquifer properties through pumping tests. It covers key concepts like drawdown, specific capacity, and transmissivity. Participants will learn how to plan and optimize pumping tests, apply analytical techniques to interpret test data, and use software to analyze projects. The document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the course sessions, including aquifer conditions, equations for flow to wells, and methods for analyzing pumping test results.
1) A pumping test was conducted where a well was pumped at 2500 m3/day and drawdowns were measured in an observation well 60 m away at various times.
2) The transmissivity and storativity of the confined aquifer were estimated using the Theis and Cooper-Jacob methods in AquiferTest software by analyzing the linear relationship between the logarithm of time and drawdown.
3) The accuracy of the aquifer parameter estimates depends on maintaining a constant pumping rate and measuring drawdowns at appropriate time intervals in multiple observation wells.
This document discusses key properties and concepts related to aquifers and groundwater flow. It defines terms like porosity, permeability, hydraulic conductivity, specific yield, and water table. It describes different types of aquifers such as unconfined, confined, and perched aquifers. Pumping from confined aquifers can create a cone of depression. Storativity describes how much water an aquifer can gain or lose from storage. Aquifer units can be homogeneous, heterogeneous, isotropic, or anisotropic depending on their properties.
Saltwater intrusion occurs when saline water from the ocean moves into freshwater aquifers located near the coast. It is often caused by groundwater pumping or construction activities that provide pathways for saltwater. Saltwater intrusion impacts freshwater resources and can lead to the loss of vegetation. The Ghyben-Herzberg relation describes the interaction between fresh and saltwater, and estimates that for every foot of freshwater above sea level, there will be 40 feet below. Management strategies aim to maintain groundwater levels and include conservation, alternative water sources, recharge, and monitoring wells.
This document discusses methods for conducting and analyzing aquifer tests. It begins by listing objectives of aquifer tests such as measuring hydraulic parameters and determining aquifer properties. It then covers considerations for planning a test and equipment requirements. The document explains concepts such as drawdown, transmissivity, and storativity. It presents equations for analyzing confined and unconfined aquifers, including Theis, Cooper-Jacob, and Neuman models. Finally, it lists some common programs that can be used to analyze aquifer test data.
The document discusses groundwater sources, zones, and types of aquifers. It describes the saturated and unsaturated zones, including the soil water, intermediate vadose, and capillary fringe zones. The main types of aquifers are defined as aquifer, aquitard, aquiclude, and aquifuge based on their water transmission properties. Methods of artificial groundwater recharge include direct surface techniques like flooding basins and percolation tanks, and direct subsurface techniques like injection wells.
This document presents information about groundwater and aquifers from a student presentation. It defines an aquifer as a saturated, permeable geologic unit that can transmit significant groundwater. It describes different types of aquifers including unconfined, confined, perched, artesian, and leaky aquifers. Examples are given of good aquifers like gravel, sand and limestone that allow easy groundwater movement, and poor aquifers like solid granite with low permeability.
Importance of Water
Hydrologic Cycle
Water Use and Resource Problems
Too Much Water
Too Little Water
Global Water Problems
Sharing Water Resources
Water Management
Providing Sustainable Water Supply
Water Conservation
The subsurface occurrence of groundwater may be divided into zones of aeration and saturation. The vertical distribution of groundwater is explained in this module.
This document discusses Darcy's law, which describes the flow of water through porous media such as sand and rock. It outlines Henry Darcy's experiments in 1856 that validated the proportional relationship between flow rate and hydraulic gradient. The document then describes the experimental setup used to test Darcy's law, involving flowing water through a sand-packed cylinder and measuring pressure and flow. It also discusses factors that determine the validity of Darcy's law such as permeability, transmissivity, and Reynolds number. In conclusion, it summarizes the key properties of groundwater flow as described by Darcy's law.
Groundwater province is an area or region in which geology and climate combine to produce groundwater conditions consistent enough to permit useful generalisations.
This document discusses principles of groundwater flow. It defines Darcy's law, which governs groundwater movement, and presents the governing equations for confined and unconfined aquifers. It also discusses flow nets, which can be used to graphically analyze groundwater flow, and the Dupuit equation, which approximates unconfined flow between two bodies of water. The document provides an example problem applying the Dupuit equation to calculate groundwater discharge to two rivers separated by 1,000 meters.
There are different types of underground formations that can store and transmit groundwater. An aquifer readily transmits significant quantities of water and can support water wells. It may be unconfined, with a water table, or confined under pressure between low-permeability layers. An aquitard has low permeability and does not yield much water to wells. Other formations may contain water but not transmit it (aquiclude) or contain no water (aquifuge). Perched aquifers occur above discontinuous low-permeability layers and are separated from the main groundwater body. The type of aquifer depends on its geology and subsurface position.
This document discusses groundwater hydrology. It defines groundwater and describes the zones of saturation and aeration below the surface. It then explains various hydrologic concepts like the water table, soil water, and capillary fringe. It also defines different zones within an aquifer like unconfined and confined, and describes their properties. Key concepts like porosity, permeability, transmissibility, and Darcy's law are summarized. Finally, it briefly discusses Dupuit's assumptions and pumping tests.
Groundwater is water located beneath the Earth's surface that saturates pores and fractures in rock and soil. It is the largest supply of fresh water available for human use. Groundwater occurs naturally and is replenished through precipitation, though the amount that can be accessed through wells varies significantly between locations. It is stored in porous geologic formations called aquifers and can be confined by layers of impermeable rock. Wells are constructed to access groundwater from aquifers, with casing, screens, grout and gravel packs used to properly construct the well. Groundwater can become contaminated if wells are improperly built or toxic materials leak into the ground near a well.
Groundwater originates as rainfall or snowmelt that seeps into the ground and fills pore spaces and fractures in rocks and sediments below the Earth's surface. It makes up about 1% of the water on Earth but over 35 times as much water as is contained in all lakes and streams. Groundwater occurs nearly everywhere and generally to depths less than around 750 meters. The global volume of groundwater is equivalent to a 55-meter thick layer spread over the entire planet. The occurrence and flow of groundwater is influenced by factors such as topography, climate, geology, and the properties of underground materials. There are four main sources of groundwater: connate water trapped during rock formation, rainfall, irrigation water, and tidal
This document contains a 25 question multiple choice test on hydrogeology. It tests knowledge of topics like groundwater flow maps, drinking water standards, well development, aquifer characteristics, drilling methods, types of wells, groundwater investigation techniques, Darcy's law, and more. The questions are in a standard multiple choice format with a single correct answer out of 4 options for each question.
This document summarizes information about ground hydrology and well completion. It discusses the different types of wells, including shallow and deep wells. It also describes various well construction methods, such as digging, boring, and drilling. Additionally, it covers topics like well casing, cementing, gravel packing, and screen placement. Proper well completion is emphasized as being important for maximizing well yield and longevity.
This document discusses hydrogeology, which is the study of groundwater. It begins by explaining the hydrologic cycle, in which water evaporates from bodies of water and transpirates from plants, condenses into clouds and precipitates back to the ground as rain or snow. Some precipitation infiltrates into the ground to become groundwater. The document then discusses groundwater occurrence, movement through aquifers, and factors that influence it like porosity, permeability and lithology. Finally, it describes the vertical distribution of groundwater into the unsaturated zone above the water table and saturated zone below it.
Henry Darcy developed Darcy's law in 1856 based on experiments studying the flow of water through sand filters. Darcy's law states that for laminar flow through saturated soil or porous media, the discharge rate is proportional to the hydraulic gradient. The law is expressed mathematically as Q=KA(h1-h2)/L, where Q is the flow rate, K is the hydraulic conductivity, A is the cross-sectional area, h1 and h2 are the water levels, and L is the distance between them. Darcy's law is valid for laminar flow in saturated, homogeneous, isotropic porous media, but may not apply to turbulent or unsaturated flow conditions. It has wide applications in areas like
The document discusses a course on analyzing pumping tests for groundwater aquifers. The course aims to teach participants how to determine aquifer properties through pumping tests. It covers key concepts like drawdown, specific capacity, and transmissivity. Participants will learn how to plan and optimize pumping tests, apply analytical techniques to interpret test data, and use software to analyze projects. The document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the course sessions, including aquifer conditions, equations for flow to wells, and methods for analyzing pumping test results.
1) A pumping test was conducted where a well was pumped at 2500 m3/day and drawdowns were measured in an observation well 60 m away at various times.
2) The transmissivity and storativity of the confined aquifer were estimated using the Theis and Cooper-Jacob methods in AquiferTest software by analyzing the linear relationship between the logarithm of time and drawdown.
3) The accuracy of the aquifer parameter estimates depends on maintaining a constant pumping rate and measuring drawdowns at appropriate time intervals in multiple observation wells.
This document discusses key properties and concepts related to aquifers and groundwater flow. It defines terms like porosity, permeability, hydraulic conductivity, specific yield, and water table. It describes different types of aquifers such as unconfined, confined, and perched aquifers. Pumping from confined aquifers can create a cone of depression. Storativity describes how much water an aquifer can gain or lose from storage. Aquifer units can be homogeneous, heterogeneous, isotropic, or anisotropic depending on their properties.
Saltwater intrusion occurs when saline water from the ocean moves into freshwater aquifers located near the coast. It is often caused by groundwater pumping or construction activities that provide pathways for saltwater. Saltwater intrusion impacts freshwater resources and can lead to the loss of vegetation. The Ghyben-Herzberg relation describes the interaction between fresh and saltwater, and estimates that for every foot of freshwater above sea level, there will be 40 feet below. Management strategies aim to maintain groundwater levels and include conservation, alternative water sources, recharge, and monitoring wells.
This document discusses methods for conducting and analyzing aquifer tests. It begins by listing objectives of aquifer tests such as measuring hydraulic parameters and determining aquifer properties. It then covers considerations for planning a test and equipment requirements. The document explains concepts such as drawdown, transmissivity, and storativity. It presents equations for analyzing confined and unconfined aquifers, including Theis, Cooper-Jacob, and Neuman models. Finally, it lists some common programs that can be used to analyze aquifer test data.
The document discusses groundwater sources, zones, and types of aquifers. It describes the saturated and unsaturated zones, including the soil water, intermediate vadose, and capillary fringe zones. The main types of aquifers are defined as aquifer, aquitard, aquiclude, and aquifuge based on their water transmission properties. Methods of artificial groundwater recharge include direct surface techniques like flooding basins and percolation tanks, and direct subsurface techniques like injection wells.
This document presents information about groundwater and aquifers from a student presentation. It defines an aquifer as a saturated, permeable geologic unit that can transmit significant groundwater. It describes different types of aquifers including unconfined, confined, perched, artesian, and leaky aquifers. Examples are given of good aquifers like gravel, sand and limestone that allow easy groundwater movement, and poor aquifers like solid granite with low permeability.
Importance of Water
Hydrologic Cycle
Water Use and Resource Problems
Too Much Water
Too Little Water
Global Water Problems
Sharing Water Resources
Water Management
Providing Sustainable Water Supply
Water Conservation
The subsurface occurrence of groundwater may be divided into zones of aeration and saturation. The vertical distribution of groundwater is explained in this module.
This document discusses Darcy's law, which describes the flow of water through porous media such as sand and rock. It outlines Henry Darcy's experiments in 1856 that validated the proportional relationship between flow rate and hydraulic gradient. The document then describes the experimental setup used to test Darcy's law, involving flowing water through a sand-packed cylinder and measuring pressure and flow. It also discusses factors that determine the validity of Darcy's law such as permeability, transmissivity, and Reynolds number. In conclusion, it summarizes the key properties of groundwater flow as described by Darcy's law.
Groundwater province is an area or region in which geology and climate combine to produce groundwater conditions consistent enough to permit useful generalisations.
This document discusses principles of groundwater flow. It defines Darcy's law, which governs groundwater movement, and presents the governing equations for confined and unconfined aquifers. It also discusses flow nets, which can be used to graphically analyze groundwater flow, and the Dupuit equation, which approximates unconfined flow between two bodies of water. The document provides an example problem applying the Dupuit equation to calculate groundwater discharge to two rivers separated by 1,000 meters.
There are different types of underground formations that can store and transmit groundwater. An aquifer readily transmits significant quantities of water and can support water wells. It may be unconfined, with a water table, or confined under pressure between low-permeability layers. An aquitard has low permeability and does not yield much water to wells. Other formations may contain water but not transmit it (aquiclude) or contain no water (aquifuge). Perched aquifers occur above discontinuous low-permeability layers and are separated from the main groundwater body. The type of aquifer depends on its geology and subsurface position.
This document discusses groundwater hydrology. It defines groundwater and describes the zones of saturation and aeration below the surface. It then explains various hydrologic concepts like the water table, soil water, and capillary fringe. It also defines different zones within an aquifer like unconfined and confined, and describes their properties. Key concepts like porosity, permeability, transmissibility, and Darcy's law are summarized. Finally, it briefly discusses Dupuit's assumptions and pumping tests.
Groundwater is water located beneath the Earth's surface that saturates pores and fractures in rock and soil. It is the largest supply of fresh water available for human use. Groundwater occurs naturally and is replenished through precipitation, though the amount that can be accessed through wells varies significantly between locations. It is stored in porous geologic formations called aquifers and can be confined by layers of impermeable rock. Wells are constructed to access groundwater from aquifers, with casing, screens, grout and gravel packs used to properly construct the well. Groundwater can become contaminated if wells are improperly built or toxic materials leak into the ground near a well.
Groundwater originates as rainfall or snowmelt that seeps into the ground and fills pore spaces and fractures in rocks and sediments below the Earth's surface. It makes up about 1% of the water on Earth but over 35 times as much water as is contained in all lakes and streams. Groundwater occurs nearly everywhere and generally to depths less than around 750 meters. The global volume of groundwater is equivalent to a 55-meter thick layer spread over the entire planet. The occurrence and flow of groundwater is influenced by factors such as topography, climate, geology, and the properties of underground materials. There are four main sources of groundwater: connate water trapped during rock formation, rainfall, irrigation water, and tidal
The document discusses the various sources of drinking water on Earth. It identifies surface water sources like streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and rain water, as well as groundwater sources such as wells, springs, infiltration galleries, and impounded reservoirs. Less than 3% of the planet's water is available as fresh water for human consumption. While Earth has abundant water resources overall, we need to conserve our valuable fresh water supplies for drinking.
The document describes the hydrological cycle, also known as the water cycle. It involves the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. The sun evaporates water from oceans, lakes, and rivers, which rises into the atmosphere. Clouds carry water vapor and precipitation falls as rain, snow, or hail. Water runs over or seeps into the ground, with some evaporating again and some collecting in aquifers below ground. This water may eventually be discharged into streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans, completing the cycle.
This document discusses groundwater concepts including:
- Groundwater occurs below the earth's surface and its movement is controlled by the porosity and permeability of geological materials.
- Aquifers are geological formations that yield significant water quantities while aquitards impede groundwater movement.
- The water table delineates the saturated and unsaturated zones. It fluctuates seasonally and due to pumping which causes cones of depression.
- Groundwater flow depends on factors like hydraulic gradients, bedding planes, faults and the permeability of geological materials.
Global water budgets show that oceans account for 97.5% of the planet's water, while land accounts for 2.4%. Groundwater is the largest reservoir of freshwater, accounting for 98% of usable freshwater. Groundwater availability depends on factors like recharge rates and protection of recharge areas. When groundwater is pumped from wells, water levels drop and cones of depression can form if not properly managed. Unregulated pumping can cause groundwater depletion and environmental issues. Water pollution stems from various natural and human sources like domestic, industrial and agricultural waste, and can harm humans and aquatic life if not controlled.
This document provides information about Earth's freshwater sources and distribution. It discusses that only 3% of Earth's water is freshwater, with 2% frozen in ice caps and glaciers and 1% available for human and animal use. The document outlines different types of surface water like rivers, lakes, and wetlands. It describes different wetland types including marshes, swamps, and bogs. The document also discusses groundwater, how it moves underground, and how wells and springs bring it to the surface. It analyzes major water uses in the US and types of water pollution from point and non-point sources. Finally, it considers factors that affect available water supply like pollution, overuse, and drought.
This document discusses water resources on Earth. It covers the water cycle, distribution of water between oceans, glaciers, groundwater, and surface water. It describes the hydrologic cycle and major zones in oceans. It also discusses freshwater resources like glaciers, permafrost, surface water bodies, wetlands, floods, and groundwater. Groundwater is stored in aquifers and some key interactions between groundwater and streams are mentioned. Lastly, it notes some human activities that impact water quality and the importance of water resource management.
Waterlogging occurs when excess water fills the pore spaces in soil, limiting oxygen availability for plant roots and microbes. It is caused by over-irrigation, poor drainage, impermeable soil layers, and high water tables. Effects include soil salinization when salts concentrate at the surface after water evaporates, reduced aeration harming root and microbial activity, decreased soil temperature, and restrictions on crop growth and cultivation methods. Proper drainage systems are needed to lower water tables and prevent waterlogging.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in hydrogeology and groundwater measurement methods. It defines groundwater as water held within saturated rock beneath the land surface. It describes the hydrologic cycle and how water moves through the unsaturated and saturated zones. It then discusses the different types of aquifers (unconfined and confined) and how groundwater flows within them. The document also explains how to measure groundwater levels using piezometers and wells, and the importance of understanding where the measurement is taken within the subsurface.
The document summarizes the structure and distribution of Earth's hydrosphere. It notes that oceans contain 97% of the planet's water, with the remaining 3% consisting of fresh water found primarily as ice (2.3%), groundwater (0.4%), and surface fresh water (0.05%). It describes the locations and characteristics of oceans, ice, fresh water in rivers, lakes, groundwater aquifers, and wetlands.
This document discusses the importance of water and its various sources. It notes that water is essential for all life on Earth and that humans rely on it for drinking, washing, recreation, agriculture and more. It also outlines different sources of water including surface water from catchment areas, rivers and lakes, as well as groundwater from springs, rock holes, excavated dams, bores and artesian bores. The document emphasizes that water must be treated and made potable to ensure it is free from germs and pollution that could make people sick.
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 9 on water resources. It begins by outlining the hydrologic cycle, in which water circulates through the atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere. It then discusses various processes involved like evaporation, transpiration, infiltration and runoff. It also describes water storage in lakes, wetlands, glaciers and groundwater aquifers. Specifically, it defines unconfined and confined aquifers and explains the relationship between groundwater and surface water. In concluding, it stresses the importance of sustainable groundwater management to avoid overuse issues like declining water tables.
The document provides information about the water cycle and groundwater. It explains that water is constantly moving through different stages of the water cycle, including evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Some key points made are that water can exist in liquid, solid and gas forms; the water cycle involves water evaporating from oceans and transpiring from plants, condensing to form clouds, and precipitating as rain or snow; and runoff can infiltrate underground and become groundwater stored in aquifers. The document also gives a detailed explanation of the Clear Creek watershed near Houston, describing the environment, flooding risks, and tributaries that drain into the creek.
This document discusses groundwater, including:
- Groundwater is water found beneath the Earth's surface, filling spaces in rock and sediment. It is a major source of water supply.
- Groundwater originates from precipitation that infiltrates underground. It moves through the hydrologic cycle and is stored in aquifers.
- Aquifers are permeable rock formations that can supply significant water to wells and springs. Properties like porosity and permeability determine how much water rock can hold and transmit.
Water exists in four main spheres on Earth and cycles between them through evaporation and precipitation. It covers 71% of the planet's surface. The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water between the atmosphere, land, and oceans through various processes. This includes evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Water is essential but threats like pollution, overuse, and climate change increase pressures on this critical resource that requires wise management.
This is our group work in our science subject. We are assigned to make a power point presentation in order for us to understand and share our knowledge in the given chapter. We hope that you learned from the presentation the we have presented, thank you and good luck!
Rivers shape the land by eroding and depositing sediments over time. They cut valleys and canyons, form floodplains and deltas at their mouths. Running water is one of the most important forces changing Earth's surface. The land is made up of layers - the lithosphere is the outer rocky layer, the hydrosphere contains Earth's water, and the atmosphere is the blanket of gases. Together these systems continuously shape and resurface the planet.
The document discusses various topics related to hydrologic cycles and groundwater including:
1) The water cycle is driven by energy from the sun and involves evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.
2) Groundwater occurs below the ground surface in voids and fractures in rocks and soil based on porosity and permeability.
3) Aquifers are underground areas that store and transmit groundwater while aquicludes and aquitards have low permeability and transmit water slowly or not at all.
4) Different rock types like sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks can serve as aquifers depending on their porosity and permeability.
Drones are increasingly being used in agriculture to improve yields and efficiency. Over 30% of farmers surveyed are currently using drones themselves or through third parties to map fields, monitor crop health, precisely apply fertilizers and pesticides, and manage irrigation and livestock. The agricultural drone market is expected to be worth $1 billion by 2024 as drone technology enhances crop monitoring and precision spraying applications.
The document discusses Arduino, an open-source hardware and software platform used for building electronics projects. It describes Arduino as a microcontroller board invented in Italy that contains a microprocessor, memory, and input/output interfaces. The Arduino Uno board is mentioned as a common type with a USB connection, digital and analog pins for connecting sensors and actuators, and an ATmega328 microcontroller. The document also provides details on the Arduino IDE software used for writing and uploading code to Arduino boards.
Day 28 Ergonomic Considerations in Designing Agricultural MachinerySuyog Khose
1. The document discusses ergonomic considerations in designing agricultural machinery. It covers various anthropometric measurements and muscular strength parameters that are important for agricultural equipment design.
2. Key anthropometric measurements discussed are body dimensions, hand strength, leg strength, and physiological parameters like heart rate and oxygen consumption during farm tasks.
3. The document emphasizes that ergonomic data on the physical characteristics and capabilities of farm workers need to be considered to design equipment that is safe and reduces operator fatigue. Proper ergonomic design can help prevent accidents and improve work efficiency.
Day 17 Establishment of Farm Machinery Manufacturing UnitSuyog Khose
This document discusses establishing a farm machinery manufacturing unit in hilly areas to increase employment opportunities. It notes the declining agricultural workforce and need to promote non-farm activities. Establishing a manufacturing unit could produce equipment suitable for hilly agriculture and provide jobs. The document outlines factors driving farm mechanization like labor shortages. It also analyzes the types and capabilities of different scale manufacturers, from village craftspeople to large companies. Standards, quality control, and supporting industries are important considerations for a new manufacturing unit.
Day 18 machine learning, artificial intelligene (ai) and its use in agricultureSuyog Khose
This document discusses an introduction to machine learning using MATLAB. It begins with an overview of today's session agenda which includes fundamentals of MATLAB environment, machine learning elements, key MATLAB components for ML development, and different machine learning algorithms. It then demonstrates MATLAB's interface and provides explanations of commonly used machine learning techniques like data collection, preprocessing, convolutional neural networks, layers within CNNs, and how learning rate affects modeling. The document aims to equip readers with basic knowledge of applying machine learning in MATLAB.
Day 14 Ttesting of Agricultural Machineries and ImplementsSuyog Khose
This document discusses testing of agricultural machinery and implements. It was written by Ashish Kumar Kerketta, a Scientist/Assistant Professor of Agricultural Engineering at Shaheed Gundadhur College of Agriculture & Research Station Kumhrawand, Jagdalpur, which is affiliated with Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya Raipur. The document was presented at the Agricultural Training Institute in Ahmednagar.
Day 10 Calibration, Adjustment of Seed Drill, Planter and Sprayer LectureSuyog Khose
The document provides information about a lecture on calibration and adjustment of seed drills, planters, and sprayers. It discusses the functions of planters and different aspects of seed metering. It describes common components of seeding devices and seed drill metering mechanisms. It also covers planter metering mechanisms, components of planters, and types of transplanters. The document provides details about calibrating seed drills and evaluating planter performance. It discusses troubleshooting issues in sowing operations and the use of sprayers for chemical weed control.
Day 09 & Day 10 Primary and Secondary Tillage ImpleSuyog Khose
This document provides an overview of soil tillage. It begins by defining tillage as the mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favorable conditions for crop production. It then discusses different types of tillage like primary and secondary tillage. Specific tillage implements are described in detail like the moldboard plow, chisel plow, disc plow, and rotary plow. The functions of tillage tools like the share, moldboard, and coulter are explained. The document also covers topics like tillage adjustments, tillage methods, and selecting the proper tillage implement for different soil types.
Day 08 Tractor Fuel, Cooling and Transmission SystemSuyog Khose
This document provides an overview of the fuel system, cooling system, and power transmission system in tractors. It discusses the key components of each system, including the sediment bowl, fuel filters, injector, radiator, clutch, gearbox, differential, final drive, and rear axle. Videos are included to demonstrate the working principles of items like the fuel injector, cooling system, clutch, differential, and gearbox. The purpose is to explain the function and components of the critical systems that deliver power from the tractor engine to the wheels.
The document provides information about a one-month online training on farm power and agricultural mechanization. It discusses governors, ignition systems, and the differences between battery and magneto ignition systems. The key points covered include:
- The purpose and components of governors in regulating engine speed under varying loads.
- The two main types of ignition systems - battery and magneto. Battery systems use power from a battery while magneto systems generate their own power from magnets.
- The working principles of battery and magneto ignition systems, including how voltage is increased and distributed to spark plugs. Battery systems have advantages at low speeds while magneto systems work better at high speeds.
This document discusses lubrication systems used in engines. It describes the key functions of lubrication including reducing friction, cooling surfaces, and sealing. It then covers the different types of lubrication systems including petro-oil, splash, forced feed, and combination systems. The properties of lubricants like viscosity, viscosity index, and classifications are explained. Finally, it discusses potential troubles in lubrication systems and the importance of maintenance.
Day 02 functional componants of ic engineSuyog Khose
The document discusses various sources of power including human, animal, mechanical, electrical, and others. It focuses on mechanical power sources like diesel engines. Diesel engines are commonly used to power tractors, power tillers, irrigation pumps and other agricultural machinery. The document discusses the components, working, and efficiency of internal combustion engines including two-stroke and four-stroke cycles. It covers engine terminology, the Otto and Diesel cycles, and actual engine efficiency factors. It provides an overview of engine systems, combustion chamber designs, valve mechanisms, and the process of overhauling engines.
Day 03 involvement of renewable sources in powering ic engineSuyog Khose
The document discusses using renewable sources to power internal combustion engines. It describes various renewable fuels that can be used including biogas produced from organic waste, producer gas from biomass gasification, hydrogen produced from renewable electricity, and alcohols like ethanol from fermented plant materials. These renewable fuels can be used in internal combustion engines directly or in dual-fuel configurations alongside diesel or gasoline. The document outlines the working of engines using these renewable fuels and their advantages like reduced emissions compared to fossil fuels. However, it also notes challenges like some fuels having lower energy content than gasoline or diesel.
This document provides an overview of various traditional and modern food storage and preservation techniques. It begins by defining food preservation and discussing its importance. Then it describes common traditional methods like drying, pasteurization, freezing, chilling, and thermal sterilization. Modern techniques discussed include irradiation, high pressure processing, pulsed electric field processing, and ohmic heating. For each technique, it provides details on the basic principles, processes involved, effects on microorganisms, advantages and examples of foods preserved. It also includes diagrams of irradiation equipment and the design of an ohmic heating unit developed by the author.
This document discusses key aspects in designing food processing plants, including plant layout and feasibility studies. It covers:
1) Distinct design considerations for food industries due to seasonal raw materials, stringent hygiene, and social cost-benefit analysis.
2) Components of a feasibility study including market potential, technical requirements, and financial projections.
3) Key factors in plant layout including flow patterns, equipment arrangement to minimize costs, and secondary considerations like climate and waste disposal.
The document discusses extrusion technology for food processing. Extrusion involves using heat, pressure, and shear forces from a screw inside a heated barrel to cook and form food. It allows for minimum heat processing while retaining nutrients. Extruders can continuously produce a variety of snacks and cereals. A single screw extruder uses one screw, while a twin screw extruder uses counter-rotating screws for better mixing. Extrusion cooking gelatinizes starches and expands products like snacks. Extruders provide benefits like low costs, energy efficiency, and adaptability for new products. Textural and biochemical properties of extruded products are tested.
This document provides an overview of food packaging. It begins with brief introductions of the author and their background and qualifications. It then defines packaging and outlines its main functions. The document provides a brief history of important developments in food packaging. It discusses factors driving growth of the packaging industry in India and common packaging materials like glass, metal and plastic containers. It outlines requirements and types of food packaging and considerations for effective packaging. Finally, it discusses emerging packaging technologies.
Drying or dehydration is a method of food preservation that works by removing moisture from food which inhibits microbial growth. It involves the use of a dry heat source like an oven or dehydrator to slowly lower the water content of foods until it is sufficiently dry to the point where bacteria, yeasts and molds cannot grow. Common foods that are dried include fruits, vegetables, herbs, meat and dairy products to extend their shelf life without refrigeration for future use when rehydrated.
Nanotechnology has potential applications in food processing, packaging, and preservation. It involves manipulating matter at the nanoscale from 1 to 100 nm. In food processing, nanotechnology can be used for nanoencapsulation of flavors, nutrients, and other compounds. This allows for targeted delivery and helps increase shelf life. Nanotechnology also aids in food packaging through use of nano-sensors, nano-composites, and nanoparticles which can monitor food quality, act as barriers to gases, and improve mechanical properties respectively. Overall, nanotechnology at the micro-level helps revolutionize food systems from production to consumption.
This document discusses postharvest management of horticultural produce in India. It provides background on India's large production of fruits and vegetables globally and opportunities for growth in the horticulture sector. It then covers major horticultural crops produced in India like bananas, mangoes, citrus fruits, vegetables. It discusses key aspects of postharvest management like cleaning, grading, packaging and storage and their importance in maintaining quality and reducing losses from harvest to consumption. Proper postharvest practices, infrastructure and technologies are needed to minimize losses and ensure steady supply of quality produce to consumers.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
K8sGPT is a tool that analyzes and diagnoses Kubernetes clusters. This presentation was used to share the requirements and dependencies to deploy K8sGPT in a local environment.
Low power architecture of logic gates using adiabatic techniquesnooriasukmaningtyas
The growing significance of portable systems to limit power consumption in ultra-large-scale-integration chips of very high density, has recently led to rapid and inventive progresses in low-power design. The most effective technique is adiabatic logic circuit design in energy-efficient hardware. This paper presents two adiabatic approaches for the design of low power circuits, modified positive feedback adiabatic logic (modified PFAL) and the other is direct current diode based positive feedback adiabatic logic (DC-DB PFAL). Logic gates are the preliminary components in any digital circuit design. By improving the performance of basic gates, one can improvise the whole system performance. In this paper proposed circuit design of the low power architecture of OR/NOR, AND/NAND, and XOR/XNOR gates are presented using the said approaches and their results are analyzed for powerdissipation, delay, power-delay-product and rise time and compared with the other adiabatic techniques along with the conventional complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) designs reported in the literature. It has been found that the designs with DC-DB PFAL technique outperform with the percentage improvement of 65% for NOR gate and 7% for NAND gate and 34% for XNOR gate over the modified PFAL techniques at 10 MHz respectively.
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELgerogepatton
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
networks of Smart Grids (SG) has emerged as a critical concern. Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3)
represents a multi-tiered application layer protocol extensively utilized in Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)-based smart grids to facilitate real-time data gathering and control functionalities.
Robust Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are necessary for early threat detection and mitigation because
of the interconnection of these networks, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of cyberattacks. To
solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
dataset (DNP3), which focuses on unauthorized commands and Denial of Service (DoS) cyberattacks, to
train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
accuracy rate of 99.50%.
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODEL
Week-2: Basics of Groundwater,
1. 1
Basics of Ground Water
Speaker
Dr. Jitendra Sinha, Associate Professor
Department of Soil and Water Engineering,
SVCAETRS, FAE, IGKV, Raipur
jsvenusmars@gmail.com, 7000633581
2. • Groundwater, water that occurs below the surface of
Earth, where it occupies all or part of the void spaces in
soils or geologic strata. ... It is also called subsurface water
to distinguish it from surface water, which is found in large
bodies like the oceans or lakes or which flows overland in
streams.
• Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks
and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves
slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks
called aquifers.
2
3. • Groundwater is water that exists underground in saturated zones
beneath the land surface. The upper surface of the saturated
zone is called the water table. ... It fills the pores and fractures in
underground materials such as sand, gravel, and other rock, much
the same way that water fills a sponge.
• Groundwater, which is in aquifers below the surface of the Earth,
is one of the Nation's most important natural resources. ... It
often takes more work and costs more to access groundwater as
opposed to surface water, but where there is little water on the
land surface, groundwater can supply the water needs of people.
3
4. • Generally, both ground water and surface water can
provide safe drinking water, as long as the sources are not
polluted and the water is sufficiently treated. ... Through
wells, ground water can be tapped where it is need, whereas
surface waters are concentrated in lakes and streams.
• Groundwater can be found in aquifers. An aquifer is a body
of water-saturated sediment or rock in which water can move
readily. There are two main types of aquifers: unconfined and
confined. An unconfined aquifer is a partially or fully filled
aquifer that is exposed to the surface of the land.
4
5. • Ground water can be obtained by drilling or digging wells. A
well is usually a pipe in the ground that fills with ground water.
This water can then be brought to the land surface by a pump.
Shallow wells may go dry if the water table falls below the
bottom of the well, as illustrated at right.
• In fact, there is a over a thousand times more water in the
ground than is in all the world's rivers and lakes.
Some water underlies the Earth's surface almost everywhere,
beneath hills, mountains, plains, and deserts. ... Groundwater
is a part of the natural water cycle
5
6. • How do I find my water table?
• The most reliable method of obtaining the depth to the water table at
any given time is to measure the water level in a shallow well
with a tape. If no wells are available, surface geophysical methods can
sometimes be used, depending on surface accessibility for placing
electric or acoustic probes.
• What is the benefit of groundwater recharge?
• Groundwater recharge can act as a barrier to seawater intrusion in
coastal basins and to the migration of contaminants. Other
potential benefits include improving flows in rivers and streams, flood
control, and wildlife and bird habitat.
6
7. 4 Types Of Water
• Surface Water. Surface waters include streams,
rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and wetlands. ...
• Ground Water. Groundwater, which makes up
around 22% of the water we use, is the water
beneath the earth's surface filling cracks and other
openings in beds of rock and sand. ...
• Wastewater
• Stormwater
Then we have:
Blue water, Green water, Grey water, Black water
Any idea?
7
16. Per capita water availability reducing
Year Water Availability
(cu.m.)/pp/yr
1951 5177
2001 1820
2025 1341
Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator
water stress areas < 1700 Cu.m./pp/yr
Many parts of India is under water stress in whole
of the year or in some parts of the year
17. Pattern of water use
Agriculture ~92% (50% from GW)
Domestic ~ 5% (>85% rural and >50% urban from GW)
Industry ~3% (>50% from GW )
Different sources of Irrigation
39%
13%
48%
Major & Medium Irrigation
Minor(S urface Water)
Minor(Ground Water)
19. Idealized aquifers- homogeneous, isotropic and infinite in
areal extension
Interstices and Porosity
Void ratio
Specific yield (Sy)
Specific retention (Sr)
Four parameters for an aquifer
Coefficient of Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity K
Transmissivity or Coefficient of Transmissivity T
Storativity / Coefficient of storage S
Drainage factor D or B
Some characters for confined beds
Hydraulic resistance, C
Leakage coefficient or Leakance, L
Leakage factor B
Hydraulic Diffusivity (D) 19
20. • Ground Water: Sources of groundwater Meteoric Water –
It is the water derived from precipitation (rain and snow) although bulk
of the rain water or melt water from snow and ice reaches the sea
through the surface flows or runoffs a considerable part of
precipitation gradually infiltrates into ground water. This infiltrated
water continue its downward journey till it reaches the zone of
saturation to become the ground water in the aquifer. • Almost entire
water obtained from ground water supplies belongs to this category.
• Ground Water Connote Water • This is the water present in the
rocks right from the time of their deposition in an aqueous
environment. During the process of formation of sedimentary rock
in a lake or sea or river, depositions is followed by compaction,
which leads to the squeezing out of most of the water present
between the sediments. Sometimes however, incomplete
compaction may cause retention of some water by these rocks
which is known as connote water. And it may be found in rocks like
limestone, sandstone and gravels. It is saline in nature and is of no
importance as a source for exploitable groundwater.
20
21. • Ground Water Juvenile Water • It is also called
magmatic water and is of only theoretical
importance as far as water supply scheme is
concerned. It is the water found in the cracks or
crevices or porous of rocks due to condensation
of steam emanating from hot molten masses or
magmas existing below the surface of the earth.
Some hot springs and geysers are clearly derived
from juvenile water.
21
22. • Ground Water Distribution: The water that goes below the
surface of the land may be found to exist in two main zones or
environments classified as Vadose Water and phreatic water or
groundwater
• In the vadose water zone itself, three different types of
environment are distinguished; soil water, intermediate vadose
water and capillary water.
• The soil water forms a thin layer confined to the near surface
depth of the land. It may occur at depth between 1.0 to 9 m and
is held up by the root zone of vegetable cover of the globe It is
lost to the atmosphere by transpiration and evaporation.
• The intermediate vadose zone occurs immediately below the
zone of soil water. It is in fact a zone of non saturation; water in
this zone is moving downward under the influence of gravity. It is
generally of smaller thickness and may be even absent in many
cases. The above zones are sometimes collectively referred as
zone of aeration. 22
23. • The zone of capillary water, also called as capillary fringe., is present only in
soil and rocks of fine particles size underlying the vadose zone. In the fine
particle size zone, groundwater is drawn upward by capillary action,
sometimes to height of 2-3 m above saturated zone lying underneath.
Growth of vegetation in some desert is very often dependent on presence
of capillary fringe.
• Ground Water The Phreatic Water Zone, also known as zone of saturation
lies below the capillary fringe and is the water held in this zone that is
called groundwater in the real sense. The upper surface of water in the
zone marks the water table in the area. In this zone the layers or bodies of
rocks which are porous and permeable, have all their open spaces such as
pores, cavities, cracks etc. completely filled with water. All these openings
are interconnected, so that a well dug into this openings are completely
filled with water, there is no or very little downward movement of
groundwater. In all ground water exploration programmes, the main
objective is to locate this zone and determine its extent, geometry and
character.
• Forms of Subsurface Water • Water in the soil mantle is called subsurface
water and is considered in two zones • Saturated Zone • Aeration Zone.23
24. • Saturated Zone • This Zone is also known as groundwater zone in which all the
pores of the soil are filled with water. The water table forms the upper limit
and marks a free surface, i.e. a surface having atmospheric pressure.
• Zone of Aeration • In this zone the soil pores are only partially saturated with
water. The spaces between the land surface and the water table marks the
extent of this zone. The zone of aeration has three subzones.
• Soil water zone • This lies close to the ground surface in the major band of the
vegetation from which the water is lost to the atmosphere by
evapotranspiration. Capillary Fringe • In this the water is held by the capillary
action. This zone extends from water table upwards to the limit of the capillary
rise. Intermediate Zone • This lies between the soil water zone and the
capillary fringe. The soil texture and moisture content and vary from region to
region. The soil moisture in the zone of aeration is of importance in
agricultural practices and irrigation engineering.
• Saturated Formations • All earth materials from soils to rocks have pore
spaces. Although these pores are completely saturated with water table below,
from the groundwater utilization aspect only such material through which
water moves easily and hence can be extracted with ease are significant.
• On this basis the saturated formation are classified into four categories. •
Aquifer • Aqitard • Aquiclude • Aquifuge
24
27. 27
Aquifer
An aquifer is a geological unit that is saturated and permeable
enough to yield sufficient amount of water to wells.
Aquitard
Aquitard is a geological unit of low permeability that can store
groundwater and also transmit it slowly from one aquifer to
another.
Aquiclude
Aquiclude is an impermeable geological unit that does not transmit
any water at all.
Aquifuge
The term Aquifuge is sometimes used synonymously with Aquiclude.
However, there is a minor difference that the Aquiclude may have
some water storage whereas Aquifuge may not.
28. 28
Unconfined aquifers
Dewatering .
This results in significant volumes of water being released from storage
per unit volume of earth material in the cone of depression.
Confined aquifers
No Dewatering
Pumping causes a decrease in head and an accompanying decrease in
water pressure in the aquifer within the cone of depression.
This decrease in water pressure allows the water to expand slightly and
causes a slight relaxation of the solid skeleton
The volume of water released from storage per unit volume of earth
material in the cone of depression in a confined aquifer is small
Release of water from confined and unconfined aquifers
29. 29
Isotropic and Anisotropic
The Isotropy means that parameters does not vary with
direction.
Anisotropy indicates that the parameters vary with respect to
direction.
The parameter mostly we consider is Hydraulic Conductivity.
The directions we consider normally are the Directions of
Coordinate axes viz. X, Y, Z
30. 30
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
The Homogeneity means that the parameters do not vary with
respect to location.
On the contrary, The Heterogeneity means that the parameters do
vary with respect to location.
The parameter mostly we consider is Hydraulic Conductivity.
31. 31
Steady State & Unsteady State Flow
Steady State Flow:
Theoretically the inflows into the system are equal
to the outflows from the system. Hence There will
not be any change in head over time.
Unsteady State or Transient Flow
Theoretically the inflows into the system are not
equal to the outflows from the system. Hence This
will be reflected as change in head over time.
:
33. Recharge Worthy Area
Hilly areas with slope >20 % are to be
demarcated as areas not suitable for recharge.
34. • Water in storage is the volume, that underlies a given area
of land surface.
• It represents the volume of water that could be recovered if
that area of aquifer were pumped dry.
Water in Storage
35. Ground Water Resources
Ground Water
Resources
Static Resource Dynamic Resource
Amount of
groundwater
available in the
permeable portion of
the aquifer below the
zone of water level
fluctuation.
Amount of
groundwater available
in the zone of water
level fluctuation.
36. Static and Dynamic GW Resources
Static
Resource
Dynamic
Resource
Fluctuation of
Water Table
38. Basic Equation
Inflow-Outflow=Change in Storage
Dynamic Resource
Static Resorce
Seepage
from
canals
Return flow
from Irrigation
Seepage
from tanks
and ponds
Draft for
Irrigation
Draft for
domestic and
industrial use
Natural Losses
Rainfall
Ground Water Resource Estimation
Using GEC’97 Methodology
39. Inflow Components
Rainfall Recharge
Recharge From canals
Recharge From Surface Water Irrigation
Recharge From Ground Water Irrigation
Recharge From Tanks & Ponds
Recharge From Water Conservation
Structures
Ground Water Resource Estimation
Using GEC’97 Methodology
41. Draft can be of three types
1. Domestic draft
2. Irrigation draft
3. Industrial draft
Estimation Of Ground Water Draft
42. Domestic Draft
Well Census Method
No of different types of abstraction structures
Unit draft
Requirement Method
Population census
Per-capita requirement
Estimation Of Ground Water Draft
43. Irrigation Draft
Well Census Method
No. of different types of abstraction structures
Unit draft
Cropping Pattern Method
Cropping pattern
Crop water requirement
Power Consumption Method
Total power consumed
Unit power required for unit water lift
Estimation Of Ground Water Draft
44. Industrial Draft
Well Census Method
No. of different types of abstraction structures
Unit draft
Power Consumption Method
Total power consumed
Unit power required for unit water lift
Estimation Of Ground Water Draft
45. Water Well
• It is a shaft or hole, usually vertical,
excavated in earth for bringing ground
water to the surface.
45
46. The objective of well
• To provide good quality water,
• To provide a sufficient quantity of water,
• To provide water for a long time, and
• To provide water at low cost
46
47. The water wells sites are taken in
a) The point at which aquifer having high potential to
provide sufficient quantity of water to well
b) Around 50 m away from contamination sites,
c) Choose an area that is not prone to flooding
d) An appropriate distance from another production
wells
47
48. Abstraction structures
Open dug well – small diameter Open well &
large diameter irrigation well
Tube well
Filter point well
Bore well
Surangam / Tunnel well
Auto flow well / Artesian well / Free Flow Well48
50. How water is tapped through water-wells?
1. Drilling Operation
2. Lowering of Assembly & Fitting of
Pump
3. Development & Utilization of well
Water saturated
zone
50
52. GROUNDWATER
water in pores between
sediments
water in fractures, faults, cracks
water in larger
openings like vugs
or caves
53. GROUNDWATER
high porosity
--well sorted
low porosity---
poorly sorted
high porosity-- small platy
sediments—well sorted
most sandstones most conglomerates—
filling of openings
mudstones
and shales
low porosity—igneous and
metamorphic rocks
55. GROUNDWATER
• specific yield
– the percent water obtained from a substance
• specific retention
– the percent water retained by a substance after water
extraction
– an example of a non rock substance displaying specific yield
and retention would be a sponge in which after squeezing out
all water there still remains some water
61. GROUNDWATER• changing levels of water table
– lowering (discharge) of water table takes place if the following usage
is greater than replenishment to zone of saturation
» continued pumping of groundwater
» plant usage
» leaking of water at the Earth’s surface into streams and lakes
– rising (recharge) of water table
» rate of replenishment (primarily by infiltration) is greater than
rate of depletion
» a spring is a natural surface emission of groundwater--
streams can form this way and many streams in the
Ozarks are spring-fed--a hot spring is about 10-15 degrees
F warmer than local annual mean air temperature
because of an association of water with subsurface
igneous intrusion
63. Old Faithful Geyser in Yellowstone National Park
A geyser is a hot spring which ejects steam
and water at the surface with great force
and in some cases at a consistent interval
(see example below)
64. GROUNDWATER
• interrelationship of groundwater and streams
– in some cases streams can directly supply groundwater and
vice versa
» an effluent (gaining) stream is supplied by groundwater
and abundant in humid climates— a type of spring
65. GROUNDWATER» an influent (losing) stream supplies water to the zone of
saturation and is characteristic for arid climates— not a spring
68. A spring related to a perched water table
(this arises when there is groundwater in the zone of
aeration above the main or regional water table)
69. GROUNDWATER• pumping of groundwater
– heavy pumping can cause a cone of depression of the water from
drawdown and may leave many shallower wells dry at the surface
72. GROUNDWATER
– Surface features
• Karst topography is a pitted looking Earth surface resulting
from subsurface solution action and include sinkholes and
solution valleys--enormous sinkholes are an example of mass
wasting
73. GROUNDWATER– Saltwater encroachment and pollution of groundwater
• pumping effects or mixing of groundwater and saltwater
near ocean areas can cause undesirable effects or pumping
too much water can cause the rising of salt water
76. What is the water table?
Zone of aeration-
Pore spaces
contain mostly air
Zone of
saturation-pore
spaces contain
mostly water
WATER TABLE-
TOP OF THE
ZONE OF
SATURATION
77. OBJECTIVE OF GW MONITORING
The main objectives of the GW regime
monitoring are ;
• To obtain the information on GW
quantity & quality data through
representative observation wells
• To record the response of GW
systems to a natural/artificial
recharge and output.
78. The Monitoring Cycle
Definition of
information
needed
Design
monitoring
program
Data collection
Data storage and
interpretation
79. Types of data for Groundwater Management
DATA TYPE BASELINE DATA (from archives)
TIME-VARIANT DATA
(from field stations)
Groundwater
Occurrence
& Aquifer
Properties
hydrogeologic logs, grdwater
levels, quality, etc.
pumping tests
grdwater level
monitoring
grdwater quality
monitoring
Groundwater
use
water well pump installations
Water use inventories
Population registers &
forecasts
Irrigation energy
consumption
water well
abstraction
monitoring
(direct/indirect)
grdwater level
variations
Supporting
Information
climatic data
land-use inventories
geologic maps/sections
riverflow gauging
meteorologic
observations
satellite land-use
80. Organizations involved
• CGWB
• State Ground Water Board
• Agricultural Department
• Irrigation Department
• R & D Organization
87. REFERENCES
1. Water Wells and Pumps: AM Michael &
Khepar
2. courses.missouristate.edu › creative ›
PPTglg110 › gro...
3. Watershed Hydrology, R. Suresh, Standard
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