Crystal structures can be single crystal, polycrystalline, or amorphous. Single crystal silicon is used to manufacture solar cells and semiconductors due to its precise electronic properties. The Czochralski method is commonly used to grow large single crystal silicon ingots from melted, purified silicon in quartz crucibles. The ingots are sliced, polished, and cleaned to produce thin round wafers for semiconductor fabrication. Larger diameter wafers allow more chips to be produced from each wafer, increasing manufacturing efficiency.

1. Crystal Structure
&
Wafer Fabrication
Abu Syed Md. Jannatul Islam
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE, KUET, BD
1
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna-9203

2. 3
Crystal
 Single crystal
 Polycrystalline
 Amorphous
 Liquid crystal

3. 3
Single Crystal
 A single crystal/mono-crystal, is a crystalline solid in which the crystal lattice of the
entire sample is continuous and unbroken to the edges of the sample, with no grain
boundaries.
 Mono/single Si serves as light-absorbing material in the manufacture of solar cells.
Insulin crystals Gallium, a metal that easily
forms large single crystals Quartz crystal
Silicon

4. 3
Polycrystalline
 Polycrystalline materials are solids that are composed of many crystallites of
varying size and orientation.
 The crystallites are referred to as grains.
 The variation in direction can be random (called random texture) or directed,
possibly due to growth and processing conditions.
 Fiber texture is an example of the latter. Almost all common metals, and many
ceramics are polycrystalline.

5. 3
Amorphous Solid
 The amorphous structure of glassy Silica (SiO2).
 No long range order is present, however there is
local ordering with respect to the tetrahedral
arrangement of Oxygen (O) atoms around the
Silicon (Si) atoms.
 An amorphous solid is a solid in which there is no long-range order of the
positions of the atoms
 Most classes of solid materials can be found or prepared in an amorphous form.
 For instance, common window glass is an amorphous ceramic, many polymers
(such as polystyrene) are amorphous, and even foods such as cotton candy are
amorphous solids.

6. 3
 Si and atomic number 14 14. The atomic mass is 28.0855.
 Silicon, like carbon and other group IV elements form face-centered diamond cubic
crystal structure.
 Silicon, in particular, forms a face-centered cubic structure with a lattice spacing of
5.430710 A (0.5430710 nm).
II III IV V VI
B
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitrogen
O
Oxygen
Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phosphorus
S
Sulfur
Zn
Zinc
Ga
Galium
Ge
Germanium
As
Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Cd
Cadmium
In
Indium
Sn
Tin
Sb
Antimony
Te
Tellurium
Silicon

7. 16
Why Silicon?
Silicon is abundant in the earth crest as an ore in the form of
quartzite and it is a low cost material.
Other reason:
► It forms an oxide that is of very high quality, seals the surface with very few pin
holes or gaps.
► This allows gap MOSFET to be more easily made as the SiO2 forms the insulating
layer for the Gate,
► Protects and passivates underlying circuitry helps in patterning and useful for
dopant masking.
► It forms a very tough Nitride- Si3N4 (Silicon Nitride) forms a very high band gap
insulator which is impermeable.
► This is used to passivate (seal) the die.
► This also used to make hard masks and in other process steps
► Si has a very nice bandgap of ~ 1.12 eV, not too high so that room temperature
can't ionize it, and not so low that it has to high leakage current.

8. 8
17
Why Silicon?
►Silicon has relatively high dielectric strength and therefore is suitable for power
devices.
►It forms a very nice gate material. Most modern FET's used in VLSI (up until the
latest generations) have been called MOSFET but in actual fact have used Si as
the gate material.
►Stable and strong material & crystal structure like diamond
►Higher operating temperature (125-175ºC vs. ~85 ºC) and thus become intrinsic at
higher temp.
►Large variety of process steps possible without the problem of decomposition
(as in the case of compound semiconductors)
►GeO2 - is partially soluble
►GaAs - does not form a oxide
►CO2 - is a gas
►Recently, SiC becoming popular due to high temperature tolerance and high
power, high frequency operation. …

9. 18
 Crystal structure : diamond cubic
 Magnetic ordering: diamagnetic
 Electric resistivity : (20 °C) 103 Ω·m
 Thermal conductivity: (300 K) 149 W·m−1·K−1
 Thermal expansion : (25 °C) 2.6 µm·m−1·K−1
 Speed of sound : (thin rod) (20 °C) 8433 m/s
 Young’s modulus: 185 GPa
 Shear modulus : 52 GPa
 Bulk modulus :100 GPa
 Band gap energy at 300 K : 1.12eV
Why Silicon?

10. 3
Importance of Single Crystal Silicon
 Semiconductor devices and VLSI (very large scale integrated) circuits require high-
purity single-crystal semiconductors. Because:
 Difficult to control properties of amorphous or poly-crystals.
 By doping, electronic properties (carrier density, mobility, conductivity, carrier
lifetime) of a single crystal can be controlled more precisely.
 Amorphous silicon is used in photovoltaic cells, electronic displays (large-area).
 Polycrystalline silicon is used as a gate contact in MOSFETs (VLSI circuits).
Single crystal Si wafers
Diameters: currently up to 300mm (500mm?)
Wafer thickness: 650μm
Wafer purity: 150 parts/trillion
Impurities: 99.99999999% Si

11. 3
 Crystals are
characterized by a unit
cell which repeats in the
x, y, z directions.
 Planes and directions
are defined using an x,
y, z coordinate system.
 [111] direction is defined
by a vector having
components of 1 unit in
x, y and z.
 Planes are defined by
Miller indices -
reciprocals of the
intercepts of the plane
with the x, y and z axes.
Crystallography

12. 3
Silicon Wafer Manufacturing
Czochralski Method
Float Zone Method
Bridgman Method

13. 3
Raw Materials

14. 3
Economical Value

15. 3
Quartzite (sand, SiO2) is placed in a hot (1800oC) furnace with carbon releasing materials,
and reacts as shown, forming metallurgic grade silicon (MGS):
2SiO2(solid) + 2C(solid)  Si(liquid) + 2CO(gas)
Metallurgical Grade Silicon
Metallurgical grade silicon (~98% pure) production and typical impurity levels.
Over 50% MGS is used to make Al alloys. The fraction used for semiconductors is very
small.

16. 3
Electrical Grade Silicon (polycrystalline)
 Basically, the solid Si is first converted into a liquid form (SiHCl3) for purification,
then converted back into solid Si.
 Both reactions occur at high temperatures.
 Metallurgical grade silicon is treated with hydrogen chloride to form tri-
chlorosilane:
 Si + 3HCl  SiHCl3(g) + H2(g) (use catalyst)
 SiHCl3 is liquid at room temperature, boiling point 32oC. Multiple distillation of the
liquid removes the unwanted impurities (99.9999% pure).
 The purified SiHCl3 is then used in a hydrogen reduction reaction to prepare the
electronic grade Si (EGS):
 SiHCl3(g) + H2(g)  Si(s) + 3HCl(g)
 (this is the reverse reaction of the above reaction)
 EGS is the raw material for Si single crystal production.

17. 3
Jan Czochralski (1885 - 1953) was a Polish chemist who invented
the Czochralski process, which is used to grow single crystals
and is used in the production of semiconductor wafers.
He discovered the Czochralski method in 1916 when he
accidentally dipped his pen into a crucible of molten tin rather
than his inkwell. He immediately pulled his pen out to discover
that a thin thread of solidified metal was hanging from the nib.
The nib was replaced by a capillary, and Czochralski verified that
the crystallized metal was a single crystal.
Czochralski Method

18. 3
Czochralski Method
 It is widely employed for Si, GaAs, and InP.
 The EGS is broken into small pieces and placed in an SiO2 crucible.
 In an argon ambient, the crucible is heated to just above 1417oC.
 Dopant is added to the melt to intentionally dope the resulting crystal.
 A single crystal seed is then lowered into the melt (crystal orientation and wafer
diameter determined by seed orientation and pull rate), and withdrawn slowly.

19. 3
 Melt flows up the seed and cools as crystal begins to grow.
 Seed rotated about its axis to produce a circular cross-section crystal. The
rotation inhibits the natural tendency of the crystal to grow along certain
orientations to produce a faceted crystal.
 Long ingots (boules) 100 kg, with very good circular cross-section are
produced.
 The oxygen and carbon (from graphite furnace components), contribute about
1017-1018/cm3 contaminants.
Czochralski Method

20. 3
Czochralski Method

21. 3
A commercial CZ puller Early in the growth process Later in the growth process
Czochralski Method

22. 3
Czochralski Method

23. 3
Oxygen and Carbon in CZ silicon
 The CZ growth process inherently introduces O (from SiO2 crucible) and C (from
graphite susceptor/supporter).
 Typically, CO ≈ 1018 cm-3 and CC ≈ 1016 cm-3.
 The O in CZ silicon often forms small SiO2 precipitates in the Si crystal under
normal processing conditions.
 O and these precipitates can actually be very useful: provide mechanical
strength, internal gettering.

24. 3
Dopant Incorporation
 Dopants are added to the melt to provide a controlled N or P doping level in the
wafers.
 However, the dopant incorporation process is complicated by dopant segregation.
 Generally, impurities “prefer to stay in the liquid” as opposed to being incorporated
into the solid.
 This process is known as segregation. The degree of segregation is characterized
by the segregation coefficient, ko, for the impurity.
CS
CL

kO 
CS
CL
CS and CL are the
impurity concentration
just on the either side
of the solid/liquid
interface.

25. 3

kO 
CS
CL
Most k0 values are <1 which means the impurity prefers to stay in
the liquid. Thus as the crystal is pulled, dopant concentration will
increase. In other words, the distribution of dopant along the ingot
will be graded.
Dopant behavior during crystal growth

26. 3
Silicon Ingot

27. 3
Ingot Grinding
Flat grind
Diameter
grind
Preparing crystal ingot for grinding

28. 3
Ingot Grinding
 This means first
precisely aligning the
crystals, then
cylindrical grinding of
the ingot pieces to the
required diameter.
 The final step is
grinding orientation
markings, such as
notches for large-
diameter wafers or
straight edges (flats)
on the side of small
wafers.

29. 3
Wafer Slicing
 The first step when wafering the silicon
ingots is multi-wire slicing, which is the
slicing method commonly employed
today.
 A very thin metal wire, which can be many
miles long, is pulled over the wire guide
rollers in such a way that a wire web with
very precise spacing is spanned.
 Nozzles apply the slurry to the web while
the silicon ingot is slowly pushed through
the web. This technology makes it
possible to slice complete silicon ingots
into hundreds of silicon wafers in just one
step.
 The individual process parameters must
be carefully monitored in order to
guarantee that the wafers are uniformly
thick and that the two faces of each wafer
are parallel to each another.
 After slicing, edge rounding, mechanical
lapping and wet chemical etching is
performed before final chemical mechanical
polishing. The wet etching is typically:
3Si + 4HNO3 + 18HF  3H2SiF6 + 4NO + 8H2O

30. 3
Edge Rounding
 Monocrystalline silicon is a very
brittle material with a high risk of
breaking.
 Special care is consequently needed
in order to avoid mechanical
damages on the edge of the wafer.
 The unrounded silicon wafer is mounted onto a grinding chuck and a profile rounding wheel
rounds the edge of the wafer.
 The edge profile is rounded to match the customer specifications.
 Each wafer is optimized in order to avoid processing damages and maximize the yields in the
component processes, such as CMP and lithography.

31. 3
Laser Marking
 Laser marking is used to identify individual wafers or wafer batches in order to
allow manufacturing traceability.
 Laser marking can take place in accordance with either industry standard or
customer specifications. As a rule, the markings contain information on the wafer
supplier, some technical information, and an individual wafer number.

32. 3
Wafer Lapping
 For lapping, the silicon wafers are held in carrier wheels (lapping carriers) between
the upper and lower lapping plates, which rotate in opposite directions. The addition
of an abrasive (lapping slurry) helps remove roughly ten micrometers of silicon from
each wafer surface.
 After the wafers have
been sliced and the
edges have been
rounded, the wafers are
lapped (or alternatively
ground) in order to
increase the parallelism
of the silicon wafer
surfaces and to remove
any damage below the
surface caused by the
slicing process.

33. 3
Wafer Etching and Cleaning
 the silicon wafers are etched and cleaned in order to eliminate any remaining
mechanical damage. Alkaline solutions, acids, or a combination of the two can be
used for the etching.

34. 3
Wafer Polishing
 Polishing makes the silicon
wafer surface smooth as
glass and further improves
the flatness.
 The wafers are mounted on
support plates and pressed
against a polishing cloth
that lies on a polishing
plate.
 Wafers with a diameter of 200mm or less are usually polished on one side.
 Wafers with a diameter of 300mm are polished on both sides.
 Like in the lapping process, the wafers are held by plates and simultaneously polished on the
front and back by upper and lower polishing plates.
 The polishing agent (polishing slurry) and the pressure scheme determine the finished wafer’s
surface quality and flatness.
Chemical mechanical polishing

35. 3
Silicon Wafer

36. 3
Advantage of larger diameter wafers
More chips per wafer for larger wafer.

37. 3
Steps for Wafer Preparation
Crystal Growth
Remove seed and
Other end of ingot
Wafer Slicing by
diamond saw
Wafer Lapping and
Edge Grind by Al2O3
and glycerine
Etching for removing
surface damage
Polishing
Cleaning
Inspection
Packaging
Grinding to special
diameter and ground
some flat region