The document describes the anatomy of the male and female urethra. It discusses the different segments of the male urethra including the prostatic, membranous, bulbar, and penile portions. It describes their lengths, relationships to surrounding structures, arterial supply, innervation, and clinical considerations like injuries and strictures. The female urethra is briefly mentioned as being 3-5 cm in length and opening into the vestibule below the clitoris.
location, length, and relation of right an left ureter, raletion of male an female ureter, n physiological site of ureteric constriction, bloo supply an inerve supply of ureter, clinical sinificance of ureter with hysteriectpomy
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The urethra is a passageway located in your body's pelvic region. The walls of the tube are thin and made up of epithelial tissue, smooth muscle cells and connective tissue. The urethra has two different types of sphincters, or muscles that act as valves that open or close
Anatomy of urinary bladder. surfaces, border of urinary bladder its relation , ligament support, peritoneal relation in male and females, pouches, blood supply of bladder, nerve supply of bladder, true and false ligament of urinary bladder,
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The urethra is a passageway located in your body's pelvic region. The walls of the tube are thin and made up of epithelial tissue, smooth muscle cells and connective tissue. The urethra has two different types of sphincters, or muscles that act as valves that open or close
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1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
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3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
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RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...
Urethra anatomy 2
1. ANATOMY OF MALE & FEMALE
URETHRA
Dept of Urology
Govt Royapettah Hospital and Kilpauk Medical College
Chennai
1
2. Moderators:
Professors:
• Prof. Dr. G. Sivasankar, M.S., M.Ch.,
• Prof. Dr. A. Senthilvel, M.S., M.Ch.,
Asst Professors:
• Dr. J. Sivabalan, M.S., M.Ch.,
• Dr. R. Bhargavi, M.S., M.Ch.,
• Dr. S. Raju, M.S., M.Ch.,
• Dr. K. Muthurathinam, M.S., M.Ch.,
• Dr. D. Tamilselvan, M.S., M.Ch.,
• Dr. K. Senthilkumar, M.S., M.Ch.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 2
3. MALE URETHRA
• 18–20 cm long
• from internal orifice in the urinary bladder to the meatus,.
THE ANTERIOR URETHRA ( 16 cm long)
proximally - lies within the perineum
distally - within the penis , surrounded by the corpus-
- spongiosum.
THE POSTERIOR URETHRA ( 4 cm long)
lies in the pelvis proximal to the corpus spongiosum
where it is acted upon by the urogenital sphincter mechanism
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 3
5. SUBDIVISION
• anterior urethra :
• PROXIMAL COMPONENT the bulbar urethra, which is surrounded
by the bulbospongiosus
A PENDULOUS OR PENILE COMPONENT,
which continues on to the tip of the penis.
• posterior urethra
• PREPROSTATIC,
• PROSTATIC ; AND
• MEMBRANOUS SEGMENTS.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 5
7. • In the flaccid penis, the urethra has a DOUBLE
CURVE.
• The urethral canal is a mere slit, except during
voiding urine
• IN TRANSVERSE SECTION
-- transversely arched >>prostatic part
-- stellate >> preprostatic&membranous
-- transverse>> bulbar and penile portions,
-- sagittal >> external orifice.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 7
8. PRE-PROSTATIC URETHRA
At its midpoint ,the urethra turns 35 degree anteriorly
*This angle divides this segment into
pre –prostatic --1—1.5 cm
prostatic
• * circular smooth M.is thickened to form
invol.int.sphincter
*small periurethral glands, extend bet.long.smooth
M.to be enclosed by preprostatic sphincter.
*They form <1% secretary element& contribute
significant prostatic volume in old age.
• Smooth M. of this part prevents retrograde
ejaculation.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 8
9. PROSTATIC URETHRA
• 3–4 cm in length
• closer to the anterior than the posterior surface of the
gland.
• It is continuous above with the preprostatic part and
emerges from the prostate slightly anterior to its apex
• Throughout most of its length the posterior wall possesses
a midline ridge, THE URETHRAL CREST.
• On each side of the crest there is a shallow depression, the
PROSTATIC SINUS, the floor of which is perforated by the
orifices of 15–20 PROSTATIC DUCTS.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 9
10. PROSTATIC URETHRA …CONTD
• An elevation, THE VERUMONTANUM(seminal colliculus), is seen at
about the middle of the length of the urethral crest:
- surgical landmark for the urethral sphincter during TURP.
• At this point the urethra turns anteriorly by 35° and contains the
slit-like orifice of the PROSTATIC UTRICLE.
•
• Utricle ,a 6mm mullerian remnant, a sac project into prostate.
Forms diverticulam in ambiguous genitalia pt. Male equivalent of
vagina.
•
both sides of, or just within, this orifice are the two small openings
of the ejaculatory ducts.
.
• The lowermost part of the prostatic urethra is fixed by the
puboprostatic ligaments and is therefore immobile.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 10
12. MEMBRANOUS URETHRA
• Within the urogenital diaphragm. From apex
of prostate to perineal memb.
• Thickly invested by Smooth &striated M.
• Striated ext.coa t-vol.urinary sphincter.
• M. form an incomplete ring at post.midline-
• Resembling omega letter
• Its action is more of compressive than
spincteric.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 12
13. Ext.urethral sphincter
• Signet ring shape, broad at its base ,narrowing as
it passes thr’ urogenital hiatus of L.ANI.
• At the apex of prostate,surrounds by circular
circular fib.
*Post. Inserts into perineal body-
on contraction,urethra is pulled towards it.
*Fib. Rich in myosin ATPase –tonic contraction
*Anterior-dorsal vein complex
lateral –levator ani .
*Pudendal N. &sacral plexus
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 13
15. URINARY CONTINENCE AT THE LEVEL OF THE
MEMBRANOUS URETHRA IS MEDIATED BY
• radial folds of urethral mucosa-lumen occlude
• submucosal connective tissue-urethral sealing
*intrinsic urethral smooth muscle,
• striated muscle fibres
• pubourethral component of levatorani.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 15
18. BULBAR URETHRA
• Enveloped by penile bulb,bulbospongious M.
• Sup. -suspensory ligament.
• Inf. -penoscortal junction
• Bifurcation of urethral crest extents from
prostatic apex to penile bulb
• Bulbourethral glands drain into prox.bulbar.U.
• Intra bulbar part –dilated.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 18
20. Bulbar urethra
• RELATIONS :
- dorsal vein complex………>anteriorly,
- levatorani…………………………….>laterally
- perineal body &
rectourethralis ………>posteriorly,
• suspended from the pubis by fibrous tissue that extends from its
anterior and lateral parts to the
puboprostaticliagamentsposteriorlyand to the suspensory
ligament of the penis anteriorly.
• The bulbourethral glands are invested in sphincteric muscle and
drain into the membranous urethra during sexual excitement.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 20
22. PENILE URETHRA
• Within the corpus spongiosum.
• Extents from Inf.fascia of Urogenital
diaphragm to ext.urethral meatus.
• Transversely slit like lumen,during micturation
it expands to 6 mm.
• Navicullar fossa-dilated part.
• External urethral meatus-narrowest part.
• calculous can lodge.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 22
23. NARROWINGS
3 narrow areas:
at the membraneous part
at the junction of glans with corpous
spongiosum
at ext.urethral meatus.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 23
25. Urethral curvatures
• 1. penoscortal angle
• 2.bulb -urethra raises up behind symphysis.
Overcome by lowering the instrument.
• 3.large endovesical median lobe.—
compensated by lowering eye piece of
instrument, pain in unanethetized pt. Forceful
advancement may perforate median lobe.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 25
26. • intramual part- varies in length & caliber –
depends on bladder capacity
• Prostatic U.-widest & most dilatable.
• Memb. U. -
least dilatable = tone of urethral sphincter
& rigid perineal membrane.
• Penile U.
Most dependent part. Common site for
ch. Inflammation & strictures
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 26
27. GLANDS & RECESSES
• Bulbourethral glands(cowper’s )
-on the floor of memb.urethra.
• Submucosal urethral glands(littre’s)
-on the roof of penile urethra
• Lacuna magna
-large recesses in the roof of F. navicularis
• - -Catch tip of catheter, instruments are
introduced their back downwards.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 27
28. Posterior wall of male urethra
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 28
29. Urethral epithelium
• Prostatic - transitional
• Membraneous –stratified columnar
• Penile -pseudostratified columnar
• Fossa naviculoris-stratified squmous
• UROEPITHELIUM – same pathological process
(ex.) papillomata.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 29
31. Arterial supply
• Prostatic - inf. Vesical,mid.rectal A.
• Memb. - art. Of bulb (int.pudendal A.)
• Penile -urethral,bulbar, penile A.
• Blood supply through C. Spongiosum is plenty
• Urethra can be divided without compromising
- its vascularity
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 31
32. Arterial supply
• Prostatic - inf. Vesical,mid.rectal A.
• Memb. - art. Of bulb (int.pudendal A.)
• Penile -urethral,bulbar, penile A.
•
• Blood supply through C. Spongiosum is plenty
• Urethra can be divided without compromising
• - its vascularity
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 32
33. VEINS
•
anterior urethra drains into the dorsal veins
of the penis & internal pudendal veins, which
drain to the prostatic plexus.
• posterior urethradrains into the prostatic
plexuses, which drain into the internal iliac
veins.and vesical venous
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 33
35. LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE
• Vessels from the posterior urethra pass mainly to the
internal iliac nodes (a few may end in the external iliac
nodes)
• Vessels from the membranous urethra accompany the
internal pudendal artery.
• Vessels from the anterior urethra accompany those of
the glans penis, ending in the deep inguinal nodes.
NOTE : Some may end in superficial nodes, others may traverse
the inguinal canal to end in the external iliac nodes.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 35
36. INNERVATION
• prostatic plexus supplies the smooth muscle of the prostate
& prostatic urethra.
• On each side it is derived from the pelvic plexus and lies on the
posterolateral aspect of the seminal vesicle and prostate.
• Lesser cavernous nerves pierce the bulb of the corpus
spongiosum proximally to supply the penile urethra.
• Greater cavernous nerves carry the sympathetic supply
which causes contraction of the preprostatic sphincter during
ejaculation and prevents reflux of ejaculate into the bladder.
• parasympathetic preganglionicfibresare axons from
neurones in the second to fourth sacral spinal segments.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 36
38. • The nerve supply of the external urethral
sphincter is controversial.
It is believed to be supplied by neurones
in Onuf's nucleus& by perineal branches of the
pudendal nerve lying on the perineal aspect of
the pelvic floor
• Fibres from Onuf's nucleus (somatic) travel with
the pelvic plexus on each side until they branch
off and run on the pelvic aspect of the pelvic floor
to enter the membranous urethra.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 38
39. Embryogenesis
• Prostatic U .
prox.-mesonephric duct. Distal –urogenital sinus.
• Membranous U. & prox. Penile U.
-urogenital sinus -
• Distal penile U.-ingrowth of ectodermal cells of glans.
•
• EPISPADIAS.-
urethral opening over dorsum of penis - due to shift of
lat.analge of gen.tubercle
• HYPOSPADIAS
• Failure of function of urethral fold
• Urethral opening over perineum/penoscortam
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 39
40. Ant. Urethral injuries
• Extravasation depends upon which fascial
covering is involved.
• When buck’s fascia remains intact, hematoma
extends into base of penis,
• When it is violated,butterfly like hematoma is
seen over perineum, contained by dortus F.
• ext. along abd.wall to colles &scarpa F.
• Contusion,complete&incomplete injuries
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 40
42. Posterior urethral injury
• Prostato-membraneous part lies bet.2 fixed
points
1)memb. U-to ischiopubic rami by UGD
2)Prostatic U-to pubis by puboprostatic lig.
*Almost all are ass. With pelvic #
*sphincter mechanism defect
*lack of.accessability
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 42
45. Urethral strictures
• Scarring induced by local tissue injury
1)trauma- pelvic #,iatrogenic
2)inflamatory-gonococal
3) malignancy
*Reconstruction is better with traumatic
stricture.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 45
47. Male urethral carcinoma
• 80% -squamous cell ca.
Mc—bulbomembraneous urethra.
Ant.urethral ca: --
amenable to surgery,better prognosis.
Post.urthral ca:.
-extensive local invasion,distant metastsis
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 47
48. Female urethra
length :3 to 5 cm. Diameter: 6mm.
Can be dilated upto 1cm.
From neck of UB to ext. meatus.
Open into vestibule 2.5 cm below clitoris.
At the side of ext.meatus paraurethral glands open
Fibromuscular tube -composed of
-mucosa
-submucosa
-muscle
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 48
50. Female urethra
• More distensible –elastic tissue,smooth M.
• Easily dilated- instrumentation without inj.
• Commonly infected-short, open thr’ vestibule.
• In contrast to male prox.U., NO cicular smooth
M. sphincter.
• Sus. lig. Of clitoris (ant. Urethral lig.)
pubourethral lig. (post. Urethral lig.) form a
sling that support urethra beneath pubis.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 50
51. • Except during the passage of urine, the anterior and
posterior walls of the urethra are in apposition
• The epithelium is thrown into longitudinal folds, one
of which, on the posterior wall of the canal, is termed
the urethral crest.
• Many small mucous urethral glands and minute pit-like
recesses or lacunae open into the urethra and may give
rise to urethral diverticula.
• On each side, near the lower end of the urethra, a
number of these glands, Skene's glands (female
prostate), are grouped together and open into the
para-urethral duct.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 51
52. VASCULAR SUPPLY AND LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE
• URETHRAL ARTERY
supplied principally by the vaginal artery, but also receives a supply
from the inferior vesical artery.
• VEINS
The venous plexus around the urethra drains into the vesical venous
plexus around the bladder neck then into the internal pudendal
veins.
An erectile plexus of veins along the length of the urethra is
continuous with the erectile tissue of the vestibular bulb.
• LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE
internal and external iliac nodes.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 52
53. • Like male, striated urethral sphincter receives
dual somatic innervation,from pudendal
&pelvic.
• Somatic &autonomic N. travel along lat. Wall
of vagina,near urethra.
• During transvaginal incontinence
surgery,ant.vag. Wall should be incised
laterally –to prevent incontinence
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 53
54. MICROSTRUCTURE
• The mucosa consists of a stratified epithelium and a
supporting lamina propriaof loose fibroelastic
connective tissue.
• The lamina propria contains a fine nerve plexus,
believed to be derived from sensory branches of the
pudendal nerves.
• The proximal part of the urethra is lined by
urothelium, identical in appearance to that of the
bladder neck.
• Distally the epithelium changes into a non-keratinizing
stratified squamoustype which lines the major portion
of the female urethra.
• keratinized at the external urethral meatuscontinuous
with the skin of the vestibule.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 54
56. Mucosa &submucosa
• Mucosa:
prox- transitional cell
distal –nonkeratinised stratified squmous
• Submucosa:
long&circular elastic fibers with prominent
venous system
Act as washer producing a seal that contribute to
urethral closer pressuree
In hypoestrogenic state>thinning of
tissue>incontinence
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 56
57. Muscle layer
• Thick seat of long.fibers &thin outer circular F.
• Distal 2/3-circular layer of striated smooth M
• Rhabdosphincter-
type 1 fiber& 3muscles.
• Proximally,the M. forms ring(sphincter
urethra)
• Distally,the M. fans out laterally along
inf.border of pubic rami(compressor urethra)
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 57
58. Internal sphincter
• Located at UV JUNCTION.
• Formed by trigonal ring, 2 U –shaped loops from
detrusor muscle
• Innervated by autonomic fibers
• Pudendal N.dysfunction-
- birth injury
-prior anti incontinence procedure
- myelodysplasia
• Lead to incontinence even the anatomic support
is normal
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 58
60. EXTERNAL SPHINCTER
• Proximal portion:
sphincter urethrae muscle
• Distal portion
1.compressor urethrae M.
2. urethrovaginal M.
located above perineal membrane in the deep
compartment of urogenital triangle
As a unit they contract voluntarily&prevent
incontinence if urine gets passed in a marginally
functioning int.sphincter
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 60
61. MUSCLES OF EXT SPHINCTER
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 61
62. Mucosal coaptation
• AV complex located bet.smooth muscle coat
&epithelial lining.
• Filling of this vasculature with blood,improves
mucosal coaptation by causing urethral walls
to seal
• -> increase the urethral resting pressure >>
• Preventing involuntary urine loss
• They are estrogen sensitive
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 62
63. Pubocervical fascia
• Located on the vagina, underneath bladder.
• Ant. Vaginal fascia providing sling for urethra &
bladder.
• Prox. -attaches to cervix
• Distal –travels beneath urethra,fuses with perineal
membrane.
• Laterally-connected to pelvic wall at fascial white line
(F. of levator ani)
increased abd. Pressure ,lower urinary tract is forced
inferiorly,&compressed against pubocervical F. >>
this UV junction trapping promotes continence.
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 63
64. Muscles of pelvic floor
• Levator ani M. –pubococcygeus
• iliococcygeus
• Perineal surface- br.of pudendal N.
• Pelvic surface- motor eff. From S2—S4
• Unlike other striated M., pelvic floor
muscles,are in constant state of contraction>>
efficient positioning of UV junction
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 64
67. Female continence mechanism
involuntary int.sphincter-vesical neck
Voluntary ext.sphincter-muscles of urethra
Mucosal coaptation-urethral submucosal vascular
plexus.
support of UB &UV junction:
pubocevical fascia which is attached to
levator ani ,
pelvic floor muscles
Dept Of Urology, KMC and GRH, Chennai 67