The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body's cells and removes carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The nose warms, filters and humidifies inhaled air and is also the organ of smell. The pharynx is a passageway for air and food that is lined with lymphoid tissue including the tonsils. The larynx, or voice box, contains cartilages including the thyroid and cricoid cartilages which support the vocal cords that produce sound.
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream.
The human respiratory system consists of the upper and lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx and larynx. The lower tract includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs. The nose warms and filters inhaled air. The lungs are the primary organs for gas exchange, extracting oxygen from inhaled air into the bloodstream and releasing carbon dioxide from the bloodstream. Respiration is controlled by respiratory centers in the brainstem which regulate the muscles of breathing.
The document discusses the structure and function of the respiratory system. It can be summarized as follows:
1) The respiratory system is divided into an upper and lower portion. The upper portion includes the nose, nasal cavity and pharynx, while the lower portion includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.
2) Gas exchange occurs in the lungs through diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. The partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide drive this diffusion.
3) Respiration is regulated by both nervous and chemical mechanisms. The brain stem contains centers that control automatic breathing, while voluntary control occurs in the cerebral cortex.
The respiratory system has several key functions including supplying oxygen to the body and removing carbon dioxide. It consists of breathing, which has two phases - inhalation that draws air into the lungs and exhalation that forces air out. Gas exchange occurs externally between the lungs and blood and internally between blood and tissues. Regulation of respiration maintains appropriate oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood by adjusting breathing to meet metabolic demand.
The digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus, which is around 8-10 meters long. The major organs of the digestive system include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The digestive system ingests food, breaks it down mechanically and chemically, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste. The salivary glands, teeth and tongue help break down food in the mouth before it moves to the stomach and intestines for further digestion and absorption of nutrients, with waste eventually being excreted.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology, covering the definition and function of respiration, the steps of respiration, the structure and function of the conducting and respiratory zones of the lungs, lung volumes and capacities, mechanics of breathing, gas exchange, transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues, and control of breathing. Key points include that respiration involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the environment and body cells, occurring in five steps including ventilation, diffusion, transport, and cellular respiration. Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli via differences in partial pressures and is facilitated by a large surface area and thin diffusion barrier. Oxygen is transported in both dissolved and hemoglobin-bound forms in the blood, while carbon
Respiration is the process of gas exchange between an organism and the environment. It consists of external respiration, which is breathing and the exchange of gases between the lungs and environment. And internal respiration, which is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and tissues via cellular respiration. The document defines the key terms and processes involved in respiration, explores factors affecting breathing rate, and how to measure lung volumes and vital capacity.
The respiratory system functions to oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide through gas exchange that occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. It is organized into an upper respiratory tract including the nose and pharynx, and a lower respiratory tract including the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. The lungs are paired organs located in the thoracic cavity that contain alveoli which are the sites of gas exchange between the respiratory and circulatory systems.
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream.
The human respiratory system consists of the upper and lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx and larynx. The lower tract includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs. The nose warms and filters inhaled air. The lungs are the primary organs for gas exchange, extracting oxygen from inhaled air into the bloodstream and releasing carbon dioxide from the bloodstream. Respiration is controlled by respiratory centers in the brainstem which regulate the muscles of breathing.
The document discusses the structure and function of the respiratory system. It can be summarized as follows:
1) The respiratory system is divided into an upper and lower portion. The upper portion includes the nose, nasal cavity and pharynx, while the lower portion includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.
2) Gas exchange occurs in the lungs through diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. The partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide drive this diffusion.
3) Respiration is regulated by both nervous and chemical mechanisms. The brain stem contains centers that control automatic breathing, while voluntary control occurs in the cerebral cortex.
The respiratory system has several key functions including supplying oxygen to the body and removing carbon dioxide. It consists of breathing, which has two phases - inhalation that draws air into the lungs and exhalation that forces air out. Gas exchange occurs externally between the lungs and blood and internally between blood and tissues. Regulation of respiration maintains appropriate oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood by adjusting breathing to meet metabolic demand.
The digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus, which is around 8-10 meters long. The major organs of the digestive system include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The digestive system ingests food, breaks it down mechanically and chemically, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste. The salivary glands, teeth and tongue help break down food in the mouth before it moves to the stomach and intestines for further digestion and absorption of nutrients, with waste eventually being excreted.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology, covering the definition and function of respiration, the steps of respiration, the structure and function of the conducting and respiratory zones of the lungs, lung volumes and capacities, mechanics of breathing, gas exchange, transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues, and control of breathing. Key points include that respiration involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the environment and body cells, occurring in five steps including ventilation, diffusion, transport, and cellular respiration. Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli via differences in partial pressures and is facilitated by a large surface area and thin diffusion barrier. Oxygen is transported in both dissolved and hemoglobin-bound forms in the blood, while carbon
Respiration is the process of gas exchange between an organism and the environment. It consists of external respiration, which is breathing and the exchange of gases between the lungs and environment. And internal respiration, which is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and tissues via cellular respiration. The document defines the key terms and processes involved in respiration, explores factors affecting breathing rate, and how to measure lung volumes and vital capacity.
The respiratory system functions to oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide through gas exchange that occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. It is organized into an upper respiratory tract including the nose and pharynx, and a lower respiratory tract including the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. The lungs are paired organs located in the thoracic cavity that contain alveoli which are the sites of gas exchange between the respiratory and circulatory systems.
The document provides information about the digestive system, including both the gastrointestinal tract and accessory digestive organs. It discusses the organs that make up the GI tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. It also covers the accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The document describes the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and defecation. It provides histological details of the layers of the alimentary tract and details of individual digestive organs and their functions.
The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Food moves through the tract where it is broken down mechanically and chemically. Digestive juices and enzymes from the accessory organs like the liver, pancreas and salivary glands aid in digestion. The small intestine completes digestion and absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream while the large intestine processes waste for excretion.
The respiratory system controls breathing by bringing oxygen into the body through the nose and mouth. Air enters the nasal cavity, where it is warmed and filtered before reaching the pharynx and larynx. The larynx contains the vocal cords and epiglottis, which prevent food from entering the trachea. The trachea divides into bronchi that lead into the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood vessels in the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Breathing is driven by contractions of the diaphragm during inhalation and its relaxation during exhalation.
This document provides an introduction to the respiratory system, including its key functions and anatomical structures. It describes how respiration involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and blood. It also outlines the phases of respiration, the functional anatomy of the respiratory tract, and the non-respiratory functions of structures like the lungs, trachea, and bronchi such as defense against pathogens, regulation of temperature and acid-base balance, and synthesis of hormonal substances.
The document summarizes the anatomy and structure of the lungs. It describes that the lungs are soft, spongy, and elastic organs located in the chest cavity. Each lung is divided into lobes and further divided into bronchopulmonary segments which are the functional units. Within the segments are bronchioles that branch into alveolar sacs containing alveoli, which are surrounded by blood vessels and allow for gas exchange between air and blood. The document also outlines differences between the right and left lungs as well as their blood supply from bronchial arteries and nerve supply from the pulmonary plexus.
The urinary system, components, the urine formation process, The gross structure of the kidney, Microscope structure of the kidney, Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System
The respiratory system allows for gas exchange in the body. It begins with the nostrils, where air enters and exits the nasal cavity to be warmed. The pharynx and larynx allow air to pass to the trachea and then bronchi, where air flows into the lungs. The lungs, located in the chest, have lobes and facilitate breathing, respiration, and protection from infection. Inhalation draws oxygen into the lungs through muscle contraction and exhalation removes carbon dioxide as a waste product.
The document summarizes the key stages and processes of respiration. It discusses:
1) The four main stages of respiration: ventilation, diffusion, transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and gas exchange in tissues and blood.
2) Non-respiratory functions of breathing like moistening air, maintaining pH, and vocalization.
3) How the pleura and pressure gradients enable the lungs to expand and contract during breathing.
4) Major respiratory muscles and how their movement affects rib and sternum movement during inhalation and exhalation.
The respiratory system allows for gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs. The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, nasal cavity and sinuses which warm, moisten and filter inhaled air. The lower respiratory tract includes the lungs and airways inside the chest. The lungs contain bronchioles and alveoli where gas exchange occurs. During respiration, oxygen is absorbed into the blood from the alveoli and carbon dioxide is released, in a continuous cycle of breathing in and out.
The document provides information on the respiratory system, including:
1. It describes the major organs of the respiratory system including the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
2. It explains the processes of external respiration which is the exchange of gases between the lungs and blood, and internal respiration which is the exchange of gases between the blood and cells.
3. It provides details on pulmonary ventilation, the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues, and the role of the respiratory system in regulating blood pH, sound production, thermoregulation and protection from pathogens.
The respiratory system exchanges gases through a series of organs. The document describes the key parts and functions of the respiratory system. It focuses on the nose, which warms, moistens, and filters air before it reaches the lungs. It then describes the pharynx and larynx, which continue guiding air through the upper respiratory tract. The larynx contains cartilages like the thyroid and cricoid that support vocal cord function and air passage.
The nose has several functions including smelling, breathing, filtering air, and draining secretions. It is made up of an external cartilage portion and internal nasal cavities divided by a nasal septum. The nasal cavities contain turbinate bones that increase their surface area and are lined with mucosa. They open anteriorly through the nostrils and posteriorly into the nasopharynx. The nose receives blood supply from several arteries and drains venous blood. Lymph drains from the nose to cervical lymph nodes. The nose has both general sensory innervation and a specialized olfactory area in the upper nasal cavity.
The renal system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. The ureters then transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder, where it is stored. When full, the bladder empties through the urethra, which exits the body. The kidneys are bean-shaped organs located in the abdominal cavity that contain millions of nephrons to filter blood. The ureters are muscular tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder is a hollow organ in the pelvis that expands as it fills with urine before emptying through the urethra.
The document provides an overview of the human respiratory system, including its key functions, organs, and mechanics. The respiratory system functions to exchange gases, purify air, and produce sound. Its organs include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Within the lungs, gas exchange takes place in tiny air sacs called alveoli. Breathing is driven by the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, pulling air into and pushing air out of the lungs.
The small intestine extends from the stomach to the large intestine. It is divided into three sections - the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine completes the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats using enzymes in the intestinal walls. It absorbs the digested nutrients through fingerlike protrusions called villi and transports them to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
The powerpoint presentation on blood pressure covers all the aspects of blood pressure, measurement of blood pressure and factors affecting blood pressure. it also explained the Hypertension and Hypotension in detail.
Blood pressure is measured using a sphygmomanometer, which includes an inflatable cuff, pressure gauge, and stethoscope. The cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated until the artery is compressed. As the cuff deflates slowly, sounds known as Korotkoff sounds can be heard through the stethoscope. The first sound indicates systolic pressure when the heart contracts, and the disappearance of sounds indicates diastolic pressure when the heart relaxes. Blood pressure provides important health information and is used to diagnose and monitor conditions like hypertension.
Anatomy and physiology of GI system and Diagnostic techniquesharshraman1989
The document describes the human digestive system. It begins with an introduction and overview of the digestive tract. It then details each part of the tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. For each organ, it discusses structure, function, blood supply, and associated glands and tissues. The document provides a comprehensive overview of the digestive system and the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination.
Respiratory system B pharmacy 2nd semester ZaibaFathima8
It has everything you need to know in the second semester of Bachelor of Pharmacy ass per the PCI syllabus.
I prepared this PowerPoint presentation to teach my beloved juniors to hope you can understand. If you want a more detailed PPT leave it in the comments.
The respiratory system document provides information on the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. It describes the process of respiration, the organs involved including the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs and associated structures like the pleura. It explains the functions of these organs like warming, filtering and transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and body tissues. The document also provides details on the composition of air, mechanics of breathing and blood supply to the respiratory organs.
The document provides information about the digestive system, including both the gastrointestinal tract and accessory digestive organs. It discusses the organs that make up the GI tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. It also covers the accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The document describes the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and defecation. It provides histological details of the layers of the alimentary tract and details of individual digestive organs and their functions.
The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Food moves through the tract where it is broken down mechanically and chemically. Digestive juices and enzymes from the accessory organs like the liver, pancreas and salivary glands aid in digestion. The small intestine completes digestion and absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream while the large intestine processes waste for excretion.
The respiratory system controls breathing by bringing oxygen into the body through the nose and mouth. Air enters the nasal cavity, where it is warmed and filtered before reaching the pharynx and larynx. The larynx contains the vocal cords and epiglottis, which prevent food from entering the trachea. The trachea divides into bronchi that lead into the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood vessels in the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Breathing is driven by contractions of the diaphragm during inhalation and its relaxation during exhalation.
This document provides an introduction to the respiratory system, including its key functions and anatomical structures. It describes how respiration involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and blood. It also outlines the phases of respiration, the functional anatomy of the respiratory tract, and the non-respiratory functions of structures like the lungs, trachea, and bronchi such as defense against pathogens, regulation of temperature and acid-base balance, and synthesis of hormonal substances.
The document summarizes the anatomy and structure of the lungs. It describes that the lungs are soft, spongy, and elastic organs located in the chest cavity. Each lung is divided into lobes and further divided into bronchopulmonary segments which are the functional units. Within the segments are bronchioles that branch into alveolar sacs containing alveoli, which are surrounded by blood vessels and allow for gas exchange between air and blood. The document also outlines differences between the right and left lungs as well as their blood supply from bronchial arteries and nerve supply from the pulmonary plexus.
The urinary system, components, the urine formation process, The gross structure of the kidney, Microscope structure of the kidney, Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System
The respiratory system allows for gas exchange in the body. It begins with the nostrils, where air enters and exits the nasal cavity to be warmed. The pharynx and larynx allow air to pass to the trachea and then bronchi, where air flows into the lungs. The lungs, located in the chest, have lobes and facilitate breathing, respiration, and protection from infection. Inhalation draws oxygen into the lungs through muscle contraction and exhalation removes carbon dioxide as a waste product.
The document summarizes the key stages and processes of respiration. It discusses:
1) The four main stages of respiration: ventilation, diffusion, transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and gas exchange in tissues and blood.
2) Non-respiratory functions of breathing like moistening air, maintaining pH, and vocalization.
3) How the pleura and pressure gradients enable the lungs to expand and contract during breathing.
4) Major respiratory muscles and how their movement affects rib and sternum movement during inhalation and exhalation.
The respiratory system allows for gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs. The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, nasal cavity and sinuses which warm, moisten and filter inhaled air. The lower respiratory tract includes the lungs and airways inside the chest. The lungs contain bronchioles and alveoli where gas exchange occurs. During respiration, oxygen is absorbed into the blood from the alveoli and carbon dioxide is released, in a continuous cycle of breathing in and out.
The document provides information on the respiratory system, including:
1. It describes the major organs of the respiratory system including the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
2. It explains the processes of external respiration which is the exchange of gases between the lungs and blood, and internal respiration which is the exchange of gases between the blood and cells.
3. It provides details on pulmonary ventilation, the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues, and the role of the respiratory system in regulating blood pH, sound production, thermoregulation and protection from pathogens.
The respiratory system exchanges gases through a series of organs. The document describes the key parts and functions of the respiratory system. It focuses on the nose, which warms, moistens, and filters air before it reaches the lungs. It then describes the pharynx and larynx, which continue guiding air through the upper respiratory tract. The larynx contains cartilages like the thyroid and cricoid that support vocal cord function and air passage.
The nose has several functions including smelling, breathing, filtering air, and draining secretions. It is made up of an external cartilage portion and internal nasal cavities divided by a nasal septum. The nasal cavities contain turbinate bones that increase their surface area and are lined with mucosa. They open anteriorly through the nostrils and posteriorly into the nasopharynx. The nose receives blood supply from several arteries and drains venous blood. Lymph drains from the nose to cervical lymph nodes. The nose has both general sensory innervation and a specialized olfactory area in the upper nasal cavity.
The renal system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. The ureters then transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder, where it is stored. When full, the bladder empties through the urethra, which exits the body. The kidneys are bean-shaped organs located in the abdominal cavity that contain millions of nephrons to filter blood. The ureters are muscular tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder is a hollow organ in the pelvis that expands as it fills with urine before emptying through the urethra.
The document provides an overview of the human respiratory system, including its key functions, organs, and mechanics. The respiratory system functions to exchange gases, purify air, and produce sound. Its organs include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Within the lungs, gas exchange takes place in tiny air sacs called alveoli. Breathing is driven by the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, pulling air into and pushing air out of the lungs.
The small intestine extends from the stomach to the large intestine. It is divided into three sections - the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine completes the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats using enzymes in the intestinal walls. It absorbs the digested nutrients through fingerlike protrusions called villi and transports them to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
The powerpoint presentation on blood pressure covers all the aspects of blood pressure, measurement of blood pressure and factors affecting blood pressure. it also explained the Hypertension and Hypotension in detail.
Blood pressure is measured using a sphygmomanometer, which includes an inflatable cuff, pressure gauge, and stethoscope. The cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated until the artery is compressed. As the cuff deflates slowly, sounds known as Korotkoff sounds can be heard through the stethoscope. The first sound indicates systolic pressure when the heart contracts, and the disappearance of sounds indicates diastolic pressure when the heart relaxes. Blood pressure provides important health information and is used to diagnose and monitor conditions like hypertension.
Anatomy and physiology of GI system and Diagnostic techniquesharshraman1989
The document describes the human digestive system. It begins with an introduction and overview of the digestive tract. It then details each part of the tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. For each organ, it discusses structure, function, blood supply, and associated glands and tissues. The document provides a comprehensive overview of the digestive system and the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination.
Respiratory system B pharmacy 2nd semester ZaibaFathima8
It has everything you need to know in the second semester of Bachelor of Pharmacy ass per the PCI syllabus.
I prepared this PowerPoint presentation to teach my beloved juniors to hope you can understand. If you want a more detailed PPT leave it in the comments.
The respiratory system document provides information on the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. It describes the process of respiration, the organs involved including the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs and associated structures like the pleura. It explains the functions of these organs like warming, filtering and transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and body tissues. The document also provides details on the composition of air, mechanics of breathing and blood supply to the respiratory organs.
Anatomically, respiratory tract is divided into upper (organ outside thorax - nose, pharynx and larynx) and lower respiratory tract (organ within thorax - trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar duct and alveoli).
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.pptxSwetaba Besh
Delve into valuable content elucidating the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system, in line with the PCI syllabus for pharmacy and PharmD students.
The respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and associated muscles. The nose warms, moistens and filters inhaled air using hairs, mucus and cilia. The pharynx is a muscular passageway that connects the nasal cavity to the larynx and allows for breathing and swallowing. The larynx, or voice box, contains cartilages including the thyroid and cricoid cartilages which support the vocal cords and epiglottis.
The respiratory system allows for oxygen to enter the body and carbon dioxide to be expelled. It includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and muscles of respiration. The nose warms, filters and humidifies inhaled air. The pharynx is a passageway for air and food. The larynx contains the vocal cords and protects the lungs. The trachea and bronchi form branching airways within the lungs whose alveoli facilitate gas exchange with blood in capillaries. Respiration is driven by the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
The document provides information on the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. It discusses the major organs involved, including the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, bronchi, and bronchioles. It describes the structure and functions of these organs, how breathing occurs through the actions of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, and the processes of external respiration in the lungs and internal respiration in tissues. The respiratory system works to oxygenate the body and remove carbon dioxide through a series of integrated organs and physiological processes.
The respiratory system provides oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and the blood vessels. The nose warms and humidifies inhaled air. The trachea divides into bronchi that enter the lungs and further divide into bronchioles and alveoli, where gas exchange occurs by diffusion between the air in alveoli and blood in capillaries. The lungs and chest wall muscles work together during breathing to inhale air and exhale carbon dioxide.
The respiratory system provides the route for oxygen to enter the body and carbon dioxide to exit. It includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs. The nose warms, moistens and filters inhaled air. The pharynx continues this process and is involved in swallowing and speech. The larynx contains the vocal cords and protects the lungs. The trachea divides into bronchi which branch into smaller bronchioles throughout the lungs, ending in alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
The document discusses the structures and functions of the respiratory system. It begins by outlining the learning objectives which are to list the structures of the respiratory system, describe the types of respiration and how oxygen and carbon dioxide are processed, and compare the upper and lower respiratory tract. It then describes the key parts of the respiratory system including the nose, pharynx, larynx, lungs, and how the system is divided functionally into conducting and respiratory zones and structurally into upper and lower tracts. It provides details on the anatomy and functions of the nose, pharynx, and larynx.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.pptxv gnm first year studentsroy456393
The respiratory system can be divided into the upper and lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, pharynx and larynx. The nose warms, filters and humidifies inhaled air and is also responsible for smell. The pharynx serves as a passageway for both air and food and connects to the nasal cavity, oral cavity and larynx. The larynx contains the vocal cords and connects the pharynx to the trachea and lungs below.
The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body's cells and removes carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm. The nose and mouth allow air to enter and be warmed and filtered before reaching the lungs. The trachea branches into bronchi that lead to the lungs. In the lungs, bronchioles branch into alveoli where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged with blood through thin membranes. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles help draw air in and out of the lungs during breathing.
The respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, lungs, and associated structures. The nose warms, moistens, and filters inhaled air and contains olfactory receptors for smell. The pharynx connects the nose and mouth to the esophagus and larynx. The larynx contains the vocal cords and protects the airway. The lungs are surrounded by pleura and expand during inhalation due to contraction of the diaphragm, which separates the chest and abdominal cavities. The tonsils are masses of lymphatic tissue located in the throat that help defend against pathogens.
The document provides an overview of the respiratory system, beginning with the external and internal nose, which warm, moisten, and filter air. It continues to the pharynx and larynx, describing their structures and functions. It then covers the trachea, bronchi, lungs and alveoli. The lungs are made up of lobes, lobules and alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange. The document emphasizes the role of structures like cilia and surfactant in protecting and moistening the respiratory tract.
The respiratory system provides oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide through a series of interconnected organs. Air enters through the nose, where it is warmed, moistened, and filtered before passing through the pharynx and larynx into the trachea and bronchi. The lungs contain bronchioles and alveoli where gas exchange occurs between air and blood. The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to supply oxygen to cells and remove carbon dioxide, maintaining homeostasis.
Respiratory system
a) Anatomy of respiratory organs and functions
b) Mechanism / physiology of respiration and regulation of respiration
c) Transport of respiratory gases
d) Respiratory volumes and capacities, and Definition of: Hypoxia, Asphyxia, Dybarism, Oxygen therapy and resuscitation
The respiratory system consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and muscles of respiration. The nose warms, moistens and filters inhaled air. The pharynx is a passageway for air and food and helps with speech and hearing. The larynx contains cartilage and produces sound. The trachea divides into bronchi which enter the lungs. The lungs are surrounded by pleura and exchange gases via alveoli and capillaries.
The respiratory system consists of organs and structures used for gas exchange. The major organs are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs. Respiration is the process of oxygen intake and carbon dioxide output. The lungs are divided into lobes and receive air via the trachea which branches into bronchi and bronchioles. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli via diffusion across the respiratory membrane. The pleura surrounds each lung and allows for lung movement during breathing.
The respiratory system is a vital organ system responsible for gas exchange between the body and the environment. Its primary function is to supply oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide. Here’s an overview of the components and functions of the respiratory system:
Components of the Respiratory System
Nose and Nasal Cavity
Function: Filters, warms, and moistens the air; detects odors.
Components: Nostrils, nasal septum, nasal conchae.
Pharynx (Throat)
Function: Passageway for air and food.
Divisions: Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx.
Larynx (Voice Box)
Function: Produces sound; routes air and food into the proper channels.
Components: Epiglottis, vocal cords, thyroid cartilage.
Trachea (Windpipe)
Function: Conducts air to the bronchi.
Structure: C-shaped cartilaginous rings maintain an open airway.
Bronchi and Bronchioles
Function: Conduct air from the trachea to the lungs; branch into smaller passages.
Structure: The right and left primary bronchi lead into the lungs and branch into secondary and tertiary bronchi, and then into bronchioles.
Lungs
Function: Main organs of respiration; contain alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
Structure: The right lung has three lobes (superior, middle, inferior) and the left lung has two lobes (superior, inferior).
Alveoli
Function: Site of gas exchange; oxygen diffuses into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
Structure: Tiny air sacs surrounded by capillaries.
Functions of the Respiratory System
Gas Exchange
Oxygen Intake: Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses through the alveoli into the blood.
Carbon Dioxide Removal: Carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the alveoli and is exhaled.
Regulation of Blood pH
Carbon Dioxide Levels: The respiratory system helps regulate blood pH by controlling the levels of carbon dioxide through breathing.
Protection
Filtering Mechanisms: The nasal hairs, mucus, and cilia trap dust, pathogens, and other particles.
Reflexes: Coughing and sneezing expel irritants from the respiratory tract.
Sound Production
Vocal Cords: Air passing through the larynx vibrates the vocal cords to produce sound.
Olfaction (Sense of Smell)
Olfactory Receptors: Located in the nasal cavity, these receptors detect airborne chemicals.
Breathing Process
Inhalation (Inspiration)
Diaphragm and Intercostal Muscles: The diaphragm contracts and flattens, and the intercostal muscles lift the ribs, expanding the thoracic cavity and reducing pressure, drawing air in.
Exhalation (Expiration)
Relaxation of Muscles: The diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, the thoracic cavity decreases in volume, increasing pressure and pushing air out.
Control of Breathing
Medulla Oblongata and Pons: These brainstem regions regulate the rate and depth of breathing.
Chemoreceptors: Located in the medulla, aorta, and carotid arteries, these receptors monitor levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and blood pH, and adjust breathing accordingly.
Health and Diseases of the Respiratory System
Common Cond
The kidneys filter blood to produce urine and are located on either side of the spine in the posterior abdominal wall. Each kidney contains around 1-2 million functional filtering units called nephrons. The nephron filters blood in the glomerulus to form an initial filtrate. Most of the filtrate is reabsorbed back into the bloodstream, with only around 1% excreted as urine. Through selective reabsorption and secretion, the kidneys regulate water and electrolyte balance and remove nitrogenous wastes from the body.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the endocrine system. It describes the pituitary gland and hypothalamus as the central regulators of other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior lobe, each producing distinct hormones. The hypothalamus controls pituitary hormone release through releasing and inhibiting hormones. The major hormones produced and their roles in growth, metabolism, reproduction and other processes are outlined.
The heart is a hollow muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs. It is composed of three layers: the outer pericardium, middle myocardium layer of muscle, and inner endocardium lining. The heart is further divided into four chambers - right and left atria on top which receive blood and right and left ventricles on bottom which pump blood out. It has a specialized conduction system including the sinoatrial node which initiates impulses and pacemaking, atrioventricular node which conducts impulses to ventricles, and Purkinje fibers which transmit the impulse through the ventricles to contract in a coordinated way. The heart is supplied by coronary arteries and drained
1. Menopause is the permanent cessation of menstruation and fertility that occurs naturally in women around the age of 50, on average.
2. It is diagnosed after 12 consecutive months of amenorrhea without any other pathological cause.
3. The stages of menopause include premenopause, perimenopause, menopause, and postmenopause, with various physiological and psychological changes occurring in each phase.
Blood circulates throughout the body, transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, heat, and waste products. It is composed of plasma and cellular components. Plasma is 90-92% water and contains proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, waste, gases, and hormones. The cellular components are red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen. White blood cells help fight infection. Blood types are determined by antigens on red blood cells. The circulatory and lymphatic systems work together to transport and filter blood throughout the body.
1. Venous thromboembolic diseases that can occur during pregnancy and postpartum include deep vein thrombosis, thrombophlebitis, and pulmonary embolism.
2. Risk factors for these conditions include inherited or acquired thrombophilias, previous VTE, heart disease, surgery such as C-section, age over 35, obesity, multiple pregnancy, and immobility.
3. Diagnosis involves Doppler ultrasound, venous ultrasonography, or CTPA. Treatment consists of anticoagulants like heparin or LMWH, thrombectomy, or inferior vena cava filters to prevent further embolism.
The document summarizes the human senses of smell and taste. It describes how smell originates in the nasal cavity and is detected by olfactory nerves and receptors. It is then processed in the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex. The sense of smell is less acute in humans than other animals. Taste is detected by taste buds on the tongue, soft palate, and throat that contain chemoreceptors stimulated by chemicals in saliva. There are four basic tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. Both smell and taste trigger digestive responses and have protective functions.
This document discusses subinvolution and urinary tract infections during the postpartum period. Subinvolution occurs when the uterus takes longer than normal to return to its non-pregnant size after delivery and can be caused by factors like multiparity, infection, or cesarean section. Common urinary complications include urinary tract infection, retention of urine, incontinence, and acute kidney injury. Urinary tract infections are treated with antibiotics, fluids, and rest while retention requires catheterization. Acute kidney injury involves phases of oliguria, anuria, early and late diuresis, and recovery managed through fluid balance, nutrition, and dialysis if needed.
Light enters the eyes and is focused on the retina. The retina contains light-sensitive rod and cone cells that detect light and allow vision. Rods function in low light and provide black and white vision while cones require bright light and enable color vision. For clear vision, the lens, pupil size, convergence of the eyes, and accommodation must be coordinated to focus images on the retina. Binocular vision from both eyes allows depth perception.
This document discusses various disorders of the eye including inflammatory conditions like styes, blepharitis, conjunctivitis, and corneal ulcers. It also discusses glaucoma, which is a group of conditions caused by increased intraocular pressure damaging the optic nerve. Additional topics covered include strabismus, presbyopia, cataracts, retinopathies, retinal detachment, retinitis pigmentosa, ocular tumors, and refractive errors such as myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism.
This presentation includes all the events , its sign and symptoms about IOL as well as management of women in the first stage of labor and how to assess the women in labor with the help of partograph.
physiology of labor includes the contraction and retraction of the muscles of uterus. I hope this presentation will help the persons of concerned subject.
Physiological changes in pregnancy. It includes changes in the genital organs, uterus, cardiovascular changes, respiratory, metabolic, alimentary, skin, skeleton, psychological changes, urinary changes and weight gain in pregnancy.
The document provides a comparison of the Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BScN) programs between All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) and Institute of Nursing Care (INC). Both programs are 4-year annual programs that include a compulsory 6-month internship. They cover similar topics in each year of study like anatomy, physiology, nursing foundations, and medical-surgical nursing. The minimum admission criteria are also similar, requiring students to be 17 years old and have passed the higher secondary exam with over 50% marks. Both programs require at least 80% attendance in theory and 100% attendance in practical subjects.
Cervical incompetence, also called cervical insufficiency, is a condition where the cervix begins to dilate and efface before pregnancy has reached term, often resulting in miscarriage. Risk factors include a history of preterm birth, multiple abortions, cervical procedures, or congenital uterine abnormalities. Diagnosis involves a history of second trimester losses and physical exam findings of cervical shortening or dilatation. Treatment options during pregnancy include bed rest, progesterone supplementation, cerclage procedures to reinforce the cervix, and sometimes pessary devices. The goal is to prevent premature dilation and maintain the pregnancy until full term.
This document provides instructions for breast care and cleaning to prevent breast engorgement. It involves cleaning the breasts with lukewarm water, soap, and massage in a circular motion for 5 minutes. The milk is then expressed and the process is repeated on the other breast. Cabbage leaf compresses are also described as a home remedy to relieve breast engorgement. Cabbage leaves with crushed veins are placed on the breasts for 20 minutes, 3 times per day for 3 days to help reduce swelling. Proper breast care and cleaning helps maintain hygiene and prevents infections while feeding.
This document provides information on the eye care procedure. It defines eye care as cleaning the eyes with saline to remove secretions and prevent infections. The purposes are to prevent further eye injury, prevent infections, relieve pain and discomfort, and allow instillation of eye drops. Key steps include cleaning the uninfected eye first, using one swab per eye in a single stroke, and repeating until any crusts are removed. The document also lists the necessary articles and pre, intra, and post procedure steps for safely performing the eye care.
Induction of labor involves initiating uterine contractions to achieve vaginal delivery. It can be done through medical methods like prostaglandins or oxytocin, or surgical methods like stripping membranes or amniotomy. Key indications for induction include post-term pregnancy, preeclampsia, diabetes, and suspected fetal compromise. Factors like cervical readiness and fetal position are assessed first to determine suitability. Methods involve prostaglandins administered vaginally or oxytocin infusion, which carry risks of hyperstimulation and fetal distress if not carefully monitored.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
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Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Communicating effectively and consistently with students can help them feel at ease during their learning experience and provide the instructor with a communication trail to track the course's progress. This workshop will take you through constructing an engaging course container to facilitate effective communication.
2. INTRODUCTION
The cells in the body need energy for all their metabolic activities.
Most of this energy is derived from chemical reactions, which can
only take place in the presence of oxygen.
The main waste product of these reactions is carbon dioxide.
The respiratory system provides the route by which the supply of
oxygen present in the atmospheric air enters the body, and it provides
the route for excretion of carbon dioxide.
Blood provides the transport system for oxygen and CO2 between the
lungs and the cells of the body.
3. Exchange of gases between the blood and the lungs is called external
respiration.
Exchange of gases between the blood and the cells is called internal
respiration.
The organs of respiratory system are:
INTRODUCTION
• Nose - Bronchioles & smaller air passages
• Pharynx - Two lungs and their covering, pleura
• Larynx - Muscles of breathing : [intercostal
• Trachea - muscles and Diaphragm]
• Two bronchi (one in each lung)
5. NOSE AND NASAL CAVITY
POSITION AND STRUCTURE
The nasal cavity is the main route of air entry, and consists of a large
irregular cavity divided into two equal passages by a septum.
The posterior bony part of the septum is formed by the perpendicular
plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer.
Anteriorly, it consists of hyaline cartilage.
The roof is formed by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and the
sphenoid bone, frontal bone and nasal bones.
The floor is formed by the roof of the mouth and consists of the hard
palate in front and soft palate behind.
7. The hard palate is composed of the maxilla and palatine bones and the
soft palate consists of involuntary muscles.
The medal wall is formed by the septum.
The lateral walls are formed by the maxilla, the ethmoid bone and the
inferior conchae.
The posterior wall is formed by the posterior wall of the pharynx.
NOSE AND NASAL CAVITY
8. LINING OF THE NASAL CAVITY
The nasal cavity is lined with very vascular ciliated columnar
epithelium which contains mucus-secreting goblet cells.
At the anterior nares this blends with the skin and posteriorly it
extends into the nasal part of the pharynx (nasopharynx).
9. OPENING INTO THE NASALCAVITY
The anterior nares or nostrils, are the opening from the exterior into
the nasal cavity.
Nasal hairs are found here, coated in sticky mucus.
The posterior nares are the openings from the nasal cavity in to the
pharynx.
The paranasal sinuses are cavities in the bones of the face and the
cranium, containing air.
There are tiny openings between the paranasal sinuses and the nasal
cavity.
10. They are lined with mucus membrane, continuous with that of the
nasal cavity.
The main sinuses are:
Maxillary sinuses in the lateral walls
Frontal & sphenoid sinuses in the roof
Ethmoid sinuses in the upper part of the lateral walls.
The sinuses are involved in speech and also lighten the skull. The
nasolacrimal ducts extend from the lateral walls of the nose to the
conjunctival sacs of the eye. They drain tears from the eye.
OPENING INTO THE NASALCAVITY
11. RESPIRATORY FUNCTION OF THE
NOSE
Warming (epistaxis)
Filtering and cleaning (expectorated)
Humidification (sneezing)
12. THE SENSE OF SMELL
oThe nose is the organ of the sense of smell (olfaction).
oSpecialized receptors that detect smell are located in the roof of the
nose in the area of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bones and the
superior conchae.
oThese receptors are stimulated by airborne odors.
oThe resultant nerve signals are carried by the olfactory nerves to the
brain where the sensation of smell is perceived.
13. THE PATHWAY OF THE AIR FROM
THE NOSE TO THE NASAL CAVITY
14. THE PHARYNX
POSITION
The pharynx (throat) is a passageway about 12-14 cm long.
It extends from the posterior nares, and runs behind the mouth and the
larynx to the level of the 6th thoracic vertebra, where it becomes the
oesophagus.
16. STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH
PHARYNX
SUPERIORLY: the inferior surface of the base of the skull.
INFERIORLY: it is continuous wit the oesophagus
ANTERIORLY: the wall is incomplete because of the openings into `
the nose, mouth and larynx.
POSTERIORLY: areolar tissue, involuntary muscle and the bodies of
the first 6 cervical vertebrae.
18. THE NASOPHARYNX
The nasal part of the pharynx lies behind the nose above the level of
the soft palate.
On its lateral walls, are the 2 openings of the auditory tubes. One
leading t each idle ear.
On the posterior wall are the pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids), consisting
of lymphoid tissue.
They are most prominent in children up to approximately 7 years of
age. Thereafter, they gradually atrophy.
19. THE OROPHARYNX
The oral part of the pharynx lies behind the mouth, extending from
below the level of the soft palate to the level of the upper part of the
body of the 3rd cervical vertebra.
The lateral walls of the pharynx blend with the soft palate to form 2
folds on each side.
Between each pair of folds is a collection of lymphoid tissue called
the palatine tonsil.
When swallowing, the soft palate and uvula are pushed upwards,
sealing off the nasal cavity and preventing the entry of food and fluids.
20. THE LARYNGOPHARYNX
The laryngeal part of the pharynx extends from the oropharynx above
and continues as the esophagus below, with the larynx lying anteriorly.
21. STRUCTURE
• The wall of the pharynx contain several types of tissue.
1. MUCOUS MEMBRANE LINING:
• The mucosa varies slightly in the different regions.
• In the nasopharynx it is continuous with the lining of the nose and
consists of ciliated columnar epithelium; in the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx it is formed by tougher stratified squamous
epithelium, which is continuous with the lining of the mouth and
oesophagus.
• This lining protects underlying tissues from the abrasive action of
foodstuffs passing through during swallowing.
22. 2. SUBMUCOSA
• The layer of tissue below the epithelium (the submucosa) is rich in
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues (MALT), involved in protection
against infection.
• Tonsils are masses of MALT that bulge through the epithelium.
• Some glandular tissue is also found there.
23. 3. SMOOTH MUSCLES
• The pharyngeal muscles help to keep the pharynx permanently open so
that breathing is not interfered with.
• Sometimes I sleep, and particularly if sedative drugs or alcohol have
been taken, the tone of these muscles is reduced and the opening
through the pharynx can become partially or totally obstructed.
• This contributes to snoring and periodic wakening's, which disturbs
sleep.
• Constrictor muscles close the pharynx during swallowing, pushing
food and fluid in to the oesophagus.
24. BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY
Blood is supplies to the pharynx by several branches of the facial
artery.
The venous return is into the facial and internal Jugular veins.
The nerve supply is from the Pharyngeal plexus, and includes both
parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves.
Parasympathetic supply is by the vagus and glossopharyngeal
nerves.
Sympathetic supply is by nerves from the superior cervical ganglia.
26. LARYNX
POSITION
The larynx or ‘voice box’ links the laryngopharynx and the trachea.
It lies in front of the laryngopharynx and the 3rd, 4th and 5th and 6th
cervical vertebrae.
Until puberty there is little difference in the size of the larynx between
the sexes.
Thereafter, it grows larger in the male, which explains the prominence
of the ‘Adam’s apple’ and the generally deeper voice.
27.
28. STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE LARYNX
SUPERIORLY: The hyoid bone and the root of the tongue.
INFERIORLY: It is continuous with the trachea.
ANTERIORLY: The muscles attached to the hyoid bone and the
muscles of the neck.
POSTERIORLY: The laryngopharynx and 3rd-6th cervical vertebrae
LATERALLY: The lobes of the thyroid gland.
LARYNX
29. STRUCTURE
CARTILAGES
The larynx is composed of several irregularly shaped cartilages attached to
each other by ligaments and membranes.
The main cartilages are:
• 1 thyroid cartilage
• 1 cricoid cartilage
• 2 arytenoid cartilage
• 1 epiglottis Elastic fibrocartilage
Several ligaments attach the cartilages to each other and to the hyoid bone.
HYALINE
CARTILAGE
31. THE THYROID CARTILAGE
• This is the most prominent of the laryngeal cartilages.
• Made of hyaline cartilage, it lies to the front of the neck.
• Its anterior wall projects in to the soft tissues of the front of
the throat, forming the laryngeal prominence or Adam’s
apple, which is easily felt and often visible in adult males.
• The anterior wall is partially divided by the thyroid notch.
• The cartilage is incomplete posteriorly, and is bound with
ligaments to the hyoid bone above and the cricoid cartilage
below.
32. THE THYROID CARTILAGE
• The upper part of the thyroid cartilage is lined with stratified
squamous epithelium like the larynx, and the lower part with ciliated
columnar epithelium like the trachea.
• There are many muscles attached to its outer surface.
• The thyroid cartilage forms most of the anterior and lateral walls of the
larynx.
33. THE CRICOID CARTILAGE
• This lies below the thyroid cartilage and is composed of hyaline
cartilage.
• It is shaped like a signet ring, completely encircling the larynx with
the narrow part anteriorly and the broad part posteriorly.
• The broad posteriorly part articulates with the arytenoid cartilages and
with the thyroid cartilage.
• It is lined with ciliated columnar epithelium and there are muscles and
ligaments attached to its outer surface.
• The lower border of the cricoid cartilage marks the end of the
upper respiratory tract.
35. THE ARYTENOID CARTILAGES
• These are two roughly pyramid-shaped hyaline cartilages situated on
top of the broad part of the cricoid cartilage forming part of the
posterior wall of the larynx.
• They give attachment to the vocal cords and to muscles and are lined
with ciliated columnar epithelium.
36. THE EPIGLOTTIS
• This is a leaf-shaped fibro-elastic cartilage attached on a flexible
stalk of cartilage to the inner surface of the anterior wall of the thyroid
cartilage immediately below the thyroid notch.
• It rises obliquely upwards behind the tongue and the body of the hyoid
bone.
• It is covered with stratified squamous epithelium.
• If the larynx is likened to a box then the epiglottis acts as the lid;
closes off the larynx during swallowing, protecting the lungs from
accidental inhalation of the foreign objects.
37. BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY
Blood is supplied to the larynx by the Superior and Inferior
Laryngeal arteries and drained by the Thyroid veins, which join the
Internal Juglar vein.
The parasympathetic nerve supply is from the superior laryngeal
and recurrent laryngeal nerves, which are branches of the Vagus
nerves.
The sympathetic nerves are from the Superior Cervical Ganglia,
one on each side.
These provide the motor nerve supply to the muscles of the larynx
and sensory fibres to the lining membrane,
38. INFERIOR OF THE LARYNX
• The vocal cords are the 2 pale folds of mucous membrane with cord-
like free edges, stretched across the laryngeal opening.
• They extend from the inner wall of the thyroid prominence anteriorly
to the arytenoid cartilages posteriorly.
• When the muscles controlling the vocal cords are relaxed, the vocal
cords open and the passageway for air coming up through the larynx is
clear; the vocal cords are said to be abducted (closed).
• When the vocal cords are stretched to this extent, and are vibrated by
air passing through from the lungs, the sound produced is high-
pitched.
39. INFERIOR OF THE LARYNX
• The pitch of the voice is therefore determined by the tension applied to
the vocal cords by the appropriate sets of muscles.
• When not is use, the vocal cords are adducted.
• The space between the vocal cords is called the glottis.
41. TRACHEA
POSITION
The trachea or windpipe is a continuation of the larynx and extends
downwards to about the level of the 5th thoracic vertebra where it
divides at the carina in to the right and left primary bronchi, one
bronchus going to each lung.
It is approximately 10-11 cm long and lies mainly in the median plane
in front of the esophagus.
43. STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH
TRACHEA
• SUPERIORLY: The larynx
• INFERIORLY: The right and left bronchi
• ANTERIORLY: Upper part; the isthmus of the thyroid gland; the
lower part: the arch of aorta and the sternum
• POSTERIORLY: The oesphagus separates the trachea from the
vertebral column
• LATERALLY: The lungs and the lobes of the thyroid gland.
44. STRUCTURE
• The tracheal wall is composed of 3 layers of tissue, and is held open
by between 16 and 20 incomplete (c-shaped) rings of hyaline cartilage
lying one above the other.
• The rings are incomplete posterior where the trachea lies against the
oesophagus.
45. STRUCTURE
• The cartilages are embedded in a sleeve of smooth muscle and
connective tissue, which also forms the posterior wall where the rings
are incomplete.
• Three layers of tissue ‘clothe’ the cartilages of the trachea.
1. The outer layer contains fibrous and elastic tissue and encloses the
cartilages.
2. The middle layer consists of cartilages and bands of smooth muscle
that wind round the trachea in a helical arrangement. There is some
areolar tissue, containing blood and lymph vessels and autonomic
nerves.
46. STRUCTURE
The free ends of the incomplete cartilages are connected by the
trachealis muscle, which allows for adjustment of tracheal diameter.
3. The lining is ciliated columnar epithelium, containing mucus-
secreting goblet cells.
47. BLOOD & NERVE SUPPLY, LYMPH
DRAINAGE
• Arterial blood supply is mainly by: Inferior Thyroid and Bronchial
arteries.
• Venous return is by the Inferior Thyroid Veins in to the
Brachiocephalic veins.
• Parasympathetic nerve supply is by the recurrent laryngeal nerves and
other branches of vagus. It constricts the trachea.
• Sympathetic supply is by nerves from the sympathetic ganglia. It
dilates the trachea.
• Lymph from the respiratory passages drains through lymph nodes
situated round the trachea and in the carina, the area where it divides
in to 2 bronchi.
49. LUNGS
POSITION & GROSS STRUCTURE
There are two lungs, one lying on each side of the midline in the
thoracic cavity. They are cone-shaped and have an apex, a base, a
tip, costal surface and medial surface.
THE APEX: This is rounded and rises into the roof of the neck, about
25 mm above the level of the middle 3rd of the clavicle. It lies close to
the 1st rib and the blood vessels and nerves in the root of the neck.
THE BASE: This is concave and semilunar in shape, and lies on the
upper (thoracic) surface of diaphragm.
51. LUNGS
THE COSTAL SURFACE: This is the broad outer surface of the lung
that lies directly against the costal cartilages, the ribs and the intercostal
muscles.
THE MEDIAL SURFACE: The medial surface of the each lung faces
the other directly across the space between the lungs, the mediastinum.
Each is concave and has a roughly triangular-shaped area, called the
hilum, at the level of 5th, 6th and 7th cervical vertebra.
The primary bronchus, the pulmonary artery supplying the lung and
the two pulmonary veins draining it, the bronchial artery and veins and
the lymphatic and nerve supply enter and leave the lung at the hilum.
52. THE LOBES OF THE LUNG AND
VESSELS / AIRWAYS OF EACH HILUM
53. LUNGS
• The mediastinum contains the heart, great vessels, trachea, right and
left bronchi, oesophagus, lymph nodes, lymph vessels and nerves.
• The right lung is divided into three distinct lobes:
1. Superior
2. Middle
3. Inferior
• The left lung is smaller because the heart occupies space left of the
midline. It is divided into only 2 lobes: Superior and Inferior.
• Divisions between the lobes are called fissures.
54. PLEURA & PLEURAL CAVITY
• Pleura consists of a closed sac of serous membrane (one for each lung)
which contains a small amount of serous fluid.
• The lung is pushed into this sac so that it forms two layers: one
adheres to the lung and the other to the wall of the thoracic cavity.
55. THE VISCERAL PLUERA
This is adherent to the lung, covering each lobe and passing into the
fissures that separates them.
56. THE PARIETAL PLEURA
This is adherent to the inside of the chest wall and the thoracic surface
of the diaphragm.
It is not attached to other structures in the mediastinum and is
continues with the visceral pleura round the edges of the hilum.
57. THE PLEURAL CAVITY
This is only a potential space and contains no air, so the pressure with
in is negative relative to atmospheric pressure.
In health, the two layers of pleura are separated by a thin film of
serous fluid (pleural fluid), which allows them to glide over each
other, preventing friction between them during breathing.
The pleural fluid is secreted by the epithelium cells of the membranes.
The double membrane arrangement of the pleura is similar to the
serous pericardium of the heart.
58. The two layers of the pleura, with pleural fluid between them, behave
in the same way as two pieces of glass separated by a thin film of
water.
They glide over each other easily but can be pulled apart only with
difficulty, because of the surface tension between the membranes and
the fluid.
This is essential for keeping the lung inflated against the inside of the
chest wall.
The airways and the alveoli of the lungs are embedded in elastic
tissue, which constantly pull the lung tissue towards the hilum, but
because pleural fluid holds the two pleura together, the lung remains
THE PLEURAL CAVITY
59. -expanded. If either layer of pleura is punctured, air is sucked in to the
pleural space and part or all of the entire underlying lung collapses.
THE PLEURAL CAVITY
60. INTERIOR OF THE LUNGS
The lungs are composed of the bronchi and smaller air passages,
alveoli, connective tissue, blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves, all
embedded in an elastic connective tissue matrix.
Each lobe is made up of a large number of lobules.
64. BRONCHI AND THE BRONCHIOLES
The two primary bronchi are formed when the trachea divides, at
about the level of the 5th thoracic vertebra.
THE RIGHT BRONCHUS: This is wider, shorter and more vertical
than the left bronchus and is therefore more likely to become obstructed
by an inhaled foreign body.
• It is approx., 2.5cm long. After entering the right lung at the hilum it
divides into 3 branches, one to each lobe. Each branch then subdivides
into numerous smaller branches.
66. THE LEFT BRONCHUS: This is about 5 cm long and is narrower
than the right. After entering the lung at the hilum it divides into two
branches, one to each lobe.
• Each branch then subdivides into progressively smaller airways within
the lung substances.
BRONCHI AND THE BRONCHIOLES
67. STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE
BRONCHIAL PASSAGES
As the bronchi divide and become progressively smaller, their structure
changes to match their function.
STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE BRONCHIAL PASSAGES:
CARTILAGE: Since rigid cartilage would interfere with expansion of
lung tissue and the exchange of gases, it is present for support in the
larger airways only.
The bronchi contain cartilage rings like the trachea, but as the airways
divide, these rings become much smaller plates, and at the bronchiolar
level there is no cartilage present in the airway walls at all.
68. SMOOTH MUSCLE: As the cartilage disappears from airway walls, it
is replaced by smooth muscle. This allows the diameter of the airways
to be increased or decreased through the influence of the autonomic
nervous system, regulating airflow with in each lung.
EPITHELIAL LINING: The ciliated epithelium is gradually replaced
with non-ciliated epithelium and goblet cells disappears.
STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE
BRONCHIAL PASSAGES
69. BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY, LYMPH
DRAINAGE
• The arterial blood supply to the walls of the bronchi and smaller air
passages is through branches of the right and left bronchial arteries.
• The venous return is mainly through the bronchial veins. On the right
side they empty into the azygous vein and on the left into superior
intercostal veins.
• The vagus nerve (parasympathetic) stimulate constriction of smooth
muscle in the bronchial tree, causing bronchoconstriction and
sympathetic causes bronchodilation.
• Lymph is drained from the walls of the air passages in a network of
lymph vessels. It passes through lymph nodes situated around the
trachea and bronchial tree then into the thoracic duct on the left
side and right lymphatic duct on the other.
70. FUNCTIONS
1. Control of air entry: The diameter of the respiratory passages is altered
by contraction or relaxation of the smooth muscle in their walls,
regulating the speed and volume of airflow into and within the lungs.
These changes are controlled by the autonomic nerve supply:
parasympathetic stimulation causes constriction and sympathetic
stimulation causes dilation.
The following functions continue as in the upper airways:
2. Warming & Humidifying
3. Support & Patency
4. Removal of particular matter
5. Cough reflex
71. STRUCTURE
Within each lobe, the lung tissue is further divided by fine sheets of
connective tissue into lobules.
Each lobule is supplied with air by a terminal bronchiole, which
further subdivides into respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and
large numbers of alveoli (air sacs).
There are about 150 million alveoli in the adult lung. It is in these
structures that the process of gas exchange occurs.
As airways progressively divide and become smaller and smaller, their
walls gradually become thinner until muscle and connective tissue
disappear, leaving a single layer of simple squamous epithelial cells in
the alveolar ducts and alveoli.
RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES &
ALVEOLI
73. • These distal respiratory passages are supported by a loose network of
elastic connective tissue in which macrophages, fibroblasts, nerves and
blood and lymph vessels are embedded.
• The alveoli are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries.
• Exchange of gases in the lung takes place across a membrane made up
of the alveolar wall and the capillary wall fused firmly together. This
is called the respiratory membrane.
• On microscopic examination, the extensive air spaces are clearly seen
and healthy lung tissue has a honeycomb appearance.
RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES &
ALVEOLI
74. • Lying between the squamous cells are septal cells that secrete
surfactant, a phospholipid fluid which prevents the alveoli from
drying out and reduces surface tension preventing alveolar collapse
during expiration.
• Secretion of surfactant into the distal air passages and alveoli begins
about the 35th week of fetal life.
• Its presence in newborn babies permits expansion of the lungs and the
establishment of respiration immediately after birth.
• It may not be present in sufficient amounts in the immature lungs of
premature babies, causing serious breathing problems.
RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES &
ALVEOLI
75. • Parasympathetic stimulation, from the vagus nerve, causes
bronchoconstriction.
• The absence of supporting cartilage means that small airways may be
completely closed off by constriction of their smooth muscle.
• Sympathetic stimulation relaxes bronchiolar smooth muscles
(bronchodilation).
NERVE SUPPLY TO BRONCHIOLES
76. 1. External respiration
2. Defence against infection: At this level, ciliated epithelium, goblet
cells and mucus are no longer present, because their presence would
impede gas exchange and encourage infection.
• By the time inspired air reaches the alveoli, it is usually clean. Defence
relies on protective cells present within the lung tissue. These include
lymphocytes and plasma cells, which produce antibodies, and
phagocytes, including alveolar macrophages. These cells are most
active in the distal air passages where ciliated epithelium has been
replaced by squamous (flattened) cells.
FUNCTIONS
77. 3. Warming & Humidifying: These continue as in the upper airways.
Inhalation of dry or inadequately humidified air over a period of time
irritates the mucosa and encourages infection.
FUNCTIONS
78. The term respiration means the exchange of gases between body cells
and the environment. This involves two main processes:
1. Breathing (pulmonary ventilation): This is movement of air into
and out of the lungs.
2. Exchange of gases: This takes place:
• In the lungs: External respiration
• In the tissues: Internal respiration
RESPIRATION
80. • Expansion of the chest during inspiration occurs as a result of
muscular activity, partly voluntary and partly involuntary.
• The main muscles used in normal quite breathing are the external
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
MUSCLES OF BREATHING
81. There are 11 pairs of intercostal muscles occupying the spaces between
12 pairs of ribs. They are arranged in two layers, the external and
internal intercostal muscles.
1. INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
82.
83. These extend downwards and forwards from the lower border of the rib
above to the upper border of the rib below. They are involved in
inspiration.
(A.)THE EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL
MUSCLES
84. • They extend downwards and backwards from the lower border of the
rib above to the upper border of the rib below, crossing the external
intercostal muscle fibre at right angles.
• The internal intercostal are used when expiration becomes active, as in
exercise.
• The first rib is fixed. Therefore, when the external intercostal muscles
contract they pull all the other ribs towards the first rib.
• The ribcage moves as a unit, upwards and outwards, enlarging the
thoracic cavity. The intercostal muscles are stimulated to contract by
the intercostal nerves.
(B.)THE INTERNAL INTERCOSTAL
MUSCLES
85. • The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscular structure separating the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
• It forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and the roof of the abdominal
cavity and consists of a central tendon from which muscle fibres
radiate to be attached to the lower ribs and sternum and t the vertebral
column by two crura.
• When the diaphragm is relaxed, the central tendon is at the level of the
8th thoracic vertebra.
• When it contracts, its muscle fibres shorten and the central tendon is
pulled downwards to the level of the 9th thoracic vertebra, lengthening
the thoracic cavity.
2. DIAPHRAGM
86. • This decreases pressure in the thoracic cavity and increases it in the
abdominal and pelvic cavities.
• The diaphragm is supplied by the phrenic nerves.
• Quiet, restful breathing is sometimes called diaphragmatic breathing
because 75% of the work is done by the diaphragm.
• During inspiration, the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
contract simultaneously, enlarging the thoracic cavity in all directions,
that is from back to front, side to side and top to bottom.
10.22
2. DIAPHRAGM
87.
88. When extra respiratory effort is required, additional muscles are used.
Forced inspiration is assisted by the sternocleidomastoid muscles and
the scalene muscles, which link the cervical vertebrae to the first 2
ribs, and increase ribcage expansion.
Forced expiration is helped by the activity of the internal intercostal
muscles and sometimes the abdominal muscles, which increase the
pressure in the thorax by squeezing the abdominal content.
3. ACCESSORY MUSCLES OF THE
RESPIRATION
89.
90. • The average respiratory rate is 12-15 breaths per minute. Each breat
consists of 3 phases:
1. Inspiration
2. Expiration
3. Pause
• The visceral pleura is adherent to the lungs and the parietal pleura to
the inner wall of the thorax and to the diaphragm. Between them is a
thin film of pleural fluid.
CYCLE OF BREATHING
91. • Breathing depends upon changes in pressure and volume in the
thoracic cavity.
• It follows the underlying physical principle that increasing the volume
of a container decreases the pressure inside it, and that decreasing the
volume of a container increases the pressure inside it.
• Since, airflows from an area of high pressure to an area of low
pressure, changing the pressure inside the lungs determines the
direction of airflow.
CYCLE OF BREATHING
92. • Simultaneous contraction of the external intercostal muscles and the
diaphragm expands the thorax.
• As the parietal pleura is firmly adhered to the diaphragm and the
inside of the ribcage, it is pulled outward along with them.
• This pulls the visceral pleura outwards too, since the 2 pleura are held
together by the thin film of pleura fluid.
• Because the visceral pleura is firmly adherent to the lung, the lung
tissue is, therefore, also pulled up and out with the ribs, and
downwards with the diaphragm.
INSPIRATION
93. • This expands the lungs, and the pressure within the alveoli and in the
air passages falls, drawing air into the lungs in an attempt to equalize
atmospheric and alveolar air pressures.
• The process of inspiration is active, as it needs energy for muscle
contraction.
• The negative pressure created in the thoracic cavity aids venous return
to the heart and is known as the respiratory pump.
• At rest, inspiration lasts about 2 seconds.
INSPIRATION
94. • Relaxation of the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
results in downward and inward movement of the ribcage and elastic
recoil of the lungs.
• As this occurs, pressure inside the lungs rises and expels air from the
respiratory tract.
• At the end of expiration, the lungs still contain some air, and are
prevented from complete collapse by the intact pleura.
• This process is passive as it does not require the expenditure of energy.
• At rest, expiration lasts about 3 seconds and after expiration there is a
pause before the next cycle begins.
EXPIRATION
96. In normal quite breathing there are about 15 complete respiratory
cycles per minute.
The lung and the air passages are never empty and, as the exchange of
gases takes place only across the walls of the alveolar ducts and
alveoli, the remaining capacity of the respiratory passages is called the
anatomical dead space (about 150ml)
LUNG VOLUME & CAPACITIES
98. This is the amount of air passing into and out of the lungs during each
cycle of breathing (about 500ml at rest).
TIDAL VOLUME (TV)
99. This is the extra volume of air that can be inhaled into the lungs during
maximal inspiration, i.e. over and above TV.
INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME
(IRV)
100. • This is the amount od air that can be inspired with maximum effort.
• It consists of the tidal volume (500ml) plus the inspiratory reserve
volume.
INSPIRATORY CAPACITY (IC)
101. • This is the amount of air remaining in the air passages and alveoli at
the end of quite expiration.
• Tidal air mixes with this sir, causing relatively small changes in the
composition f the alveolar air.
• As blood flows continuously through the pulmonary capillaries, this
means that the exchange of gases is not interrupted between breaths,
preventing moment-to-moment changes in the concentration of blood
gases.
• The functional residual volume also prevents collapse of the alveoli on
expiration.
FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY
(FRC)
102. This is the largest volume of air which can be expelled from the lungs
during maximal expiration.
EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME
(ERV)
103. This cannot be directly measured but is the volume of air remaining in
the lungs after forced expiration.
RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV)
104. • This is the maximum volume of air which can be moved into and out
of the lungs.
• VC = TV+IRV+ERV
VITAL CAPACITY (VC)
105. • This is the maximum amount of air the lungs can hold.
• In an adult of average build, it is normally around 6 liters.
• TLC represents the sum of VC and the RV.
• It cannot be directly measured in clinical tests because even after
forced expiration, the RV of air still remains in the lungs.
TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC)
106. • This is the volume of air that moves into and out of alveoli per minute.
• It is equal to the TV minus the anatomical dead space, multiplied by
the RR.
• Alveolar ventilation = TV- anatomical dead space × RR
= (500-150)ml × 15 per minute
= 5.25 L/min.
• Lung function tests are carried out to determine respiratory function
and are based on the parameters just we studied.
• Results of these tests can help in diagnosis and monitoring of
respiratory disorders,
ALVEOLAR VENTILATION
107. • Although breathing involves the alternating processes of inspiration
and expiration gas exchange at the respiratory membrane and in the
tissue is a continuous and ongoing process.
• Diffusion of oxygen and carbon-dioxide depends on pressure
differences.
• E.g. between atmospheric air and the blood, or blood and the tissues.
EXCHANGE OF GASES
110. • The composition of alveolar air remains fairly constant and different
from the atmospheric air.
• It is saturated with the water vapour, and contain more carbon-dioxide
and less oxygen.
• Saturation with water vapours provides 6.3kPa (47mmHg) thus
reducing the partial pressure of all the other gases present.
• Gaseous exchange between the alveoli and the blood stream is a
continuous process, as the alveoli are never empty, so it is independent
of the respiratory cycle.
• During each inspiration only some of the alveolar gases are
exchanged.
ALVEOLAR AIR
111. • Exchange of gases occurs when a difference in partial pressure exists
across a semipermeable membrane.
• Gases move by diffusion until equilibrium is established.
• Atmospheric nitrogen is not used by the body so its partial pressure
remains unchanged and is the same in inspired and expired aie=r,
alveolar air and in the blood.
• These principles govern the diffusion of gases in and out of the alveoli
across the respiratory membrane and across capillary membranes in
the tissues.
DIFFUSION OF GASES
116. • Oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried in the blood in different ways:
1. OXYGEN: Oxygen is carried in the blood in:
- Chemical combination with haemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin (98.5%)
- Solution in the plasma water (1.5%)
TRANSPORT OF GASES IN THE
BLOODSTREAM
117. 2. CARBONDIOXIDE: it is one of the waste products of metabolism.
- It is excreted by the lungs and is transported by 3 mechanisms:
a. As bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the plasma (70%)
b. Some is carried in erythrocytes, loosely combined with haemoglobin
as carbaminohaemoglobin (23%)
c. Some is dissolved in the plasma (7%)
TRANSPORT OF GASES IN THE
BLOODSTREAM