Soil microorganisms play important roles in maintaining soil health and fertility. They are involved in nutrient cycling by decomposing organic matter, fixing nitrogen, and carrying out other biochemical processes. The main types of microbes found in soil are bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae, and protozoa. Soil microbes affect soil structure, plant growth, and carry out important processes like nitrogen fixation, nutrient availability, and degradation of pollutants. However, human activities like agricultural practices, urbanization, and climate change threaten soil microbes by reducing organic matter, increasing salinity, and introducing pollutants. Proper management is needed to protect these vital soil microorganisms.
Microbial interactions are ubiquitous, diverse, critically important in the function of any biological community.
The most common cooperative interactions seen in microbial systems are mutually beneficial. The interactions between the two populations are classified according to whether both populations and one of them benefit from the associations, or one or both populations are negatively affected.
Soils give a mechanical support to plants from which they extract nutrients. soil provides shelters for many animal types, from invertebrates such as worms and insects up to mammals like rabbits, moles, foxes and badgers. It also provides habitats colonised by a staggering variety of microorganisms. This module is about the microbial life in soils.
Soil organic matter has long been recognized as one of the most important components in maintaining soil fertility, soil quality, and agricultural sustainability. The soil zone strongly influenced by plant roots, the rhizosphere, plays an important role in regulating soil organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling. Processes that are largely controlled or directly influenced by roots are often referred to as rhizosphere processes. These processes may include exudation of soluble compounds, water uptake, nutrient mobilization by roots and microorganisms, rhizosphere-mediated soil organic matter decomposition, and the subsequent release of CO2 through respiration. Rhizosphere processes are major gateways for nutrients and water. At the global scale, rhizosphere processes utilize approximately 50% of the energy fixed by photosynthesis in terrestrial ecosystems, contribute roughly 50% of the total CO2 emitted from terrestrial ecosystems, and mediate virtually all aspects of nutrient cycling. Therefore, plant roots and their rhizosphere interactions are at the center of many ecosystem processes. However, the linkage between rhizosphere processes and soil organic matter decomposition is not well understood. Because of the lack of appropriate methods, rates of soil organic matter decomposition are commonly assessed by incubating soil samples in the absence of vegetation and live roots with an implicit assumption that rhizosphere processes have little impact on the results. Our recent studies have overwhelmingly proved that this implicit assumption is often invalid, because the rate of soil organic matter decomposition can be accelerated by as much as 380% or inhibited by as much as 50% by the presence of live roots. The rhizosphere effect on soil organic matter decomposition is often large in magnitude and significant in mediating plant-soil interactions.
he rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil or substrate that is directly influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms known as the root microbiome.
The phyllosphere is a term used in microbiology to refer to the total above-ground portions of plants as habitat for microorganisms.
Microbial interactions are ubiquitous, diverse, critically important in the function of any biological community.
The most common cooperative interactions seen in microbial systems are mutually beneficial. The interactions between the two populations are classified according to whether both populations and one of them benefit from the associations, or one or both populations are negatively affected.
Soils give a mechanical support to plants from which they extract nutrients. soil provides shelters for many animal types, from invertebrates such as worms and insects up to mammals like rabbits, moles, foxes and badgers. It also provides habitats colonised by a staggering variety of microorganisms. This module is about the microbial life in soils.
Soil organic matter has long been recognized as one of the most important components in maintaining soil fertility, soil quality, and agricultural sustainability. The soil zone strongly influenced by plant roots, the rhizosphere, plays an important role in regulating soil organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling. Processes that are largely controlled or directly influenced by roots are often referred to as rhizosphere processes. These processes may include exudation of soluble compounds, water uptake, nutrient mobilization by roots and microorganisms, rhizosphere-mediated soil organic matter decomposition, and the subsequent release of CO2 through respiration. Rhizosphere processes are major gateways for nutrients and water. At the global scale, rhizosphere processes utilize approximately 50% of the energy fixed by photosynthesis in terrestrial ecosystems, contribute roughly 50% of the total CO2 emitted from terrestrial ecosystems, and mediate virtually all aspects of nutrient cycling. Therefore, plant roots and their rhizosphere interactions are at the center of many ecosystem processes. However, the linkage between rhizosphere processes and soil organic matter decomposition is not well understood. Because of the lack of appropriate methods, rates of soil organic matter decomposition are commonly assessed by incubating soil samples in the absence of vegetation and live roots with an implicit assumption that rhizosphere processes have little impact on the results. Our recent studies have overwhelmingly proved that this implicit assumption is often invalid, because the rate of soil organic matter decomposition can be accelerated by as much as 380% or inhibited by as much as 50% by the presence of live roots. The rhizosphere effect on soil organic matter decomposition is often large in magnitude and significant in mediating plant-soil interactions.
he rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil or substrate that is directly influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms known as the root microbiome.
The phyllosphere is a term used in microbiology to refer to the total above-ground portions of plants as habitat for microorganisms.
Mycorrhiza Biofertilizer is also known as VAM (Myco = Fungal + rrhiza = roots) adheres to plants rhizoids leading to development of hyphae. Hyphae boost development and spreading of white root in to soil leading to significant increase in rhizosphere. These hyphae further penetrate and form arbuscules within the root cortical. VAM fungi form a special symbiotic relationship with roots of plant that can enhance growth and survivability of colonized plants. Mycorrhiza Biofertilizer is very useful in organic farming as well as normal commercial farming
Introduction :
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic symbiotic associations formed between the roots of higher plants and fungi.
Fungal roots were discovered by the German botanist A B Frank in the last century (1855) in forest trees such as pine.
In nature approximately 90% of plants are infected with mycorrhizae. 83% Dicots,79% Monocots and 100% Gymnosperms.
Convert insoluble form of phosphorous in soil into soluble form.
Mycorrhiza Biofertilizer is also known as VAM (Myco = Fungal + rrhiza = roots) adheres to plants rhizoids leading to development of hyphae. Hyphae boost development and spreading of white root in to soil leading to significant increase in rhizosphere. These hyphae further penetrate and form arbuscules within the root cortical. VAM fungi form a special symbiotic relationship with roots of plant that can enhance growth and survivability of colonized plants. Mycorrhiza Biofertilizer is very useful in organic farming as well as normal commercial farming
Introduction :
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic symbiotic associations formed between the roots of higher plants and fungi.
Fungal roots were discovered by the German botanist A B Frank in the last century (1855) in forest trees such as pine.
In nature approximately 90% of plants are infected with mycorrhizae. 83% Dicots,79% Monocots and 100% Gymnosperms.
Convert insoluble form of phosphorous in soil into soluble form.
The Role of Micro-Organisms in the Decomposition of Organic Matter and the Re...KNRaghvani
This is a presentation about the role of micro-organisms in the decay of bodies etc. for the purposes of A2 biology edexcel unit 4.
a way of revising
information collected from the a2 snab textbook and other online resources
enjoy!
This ppt includes all the various important aspects of bacteria in Agricultural purposes.
Bacteria are found everywhere.The soil provides a favourable environment for various microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. Therefore, these microbes are abundantly and sometimes densely found in the soil. It is estimated that there are almost one to ten million microorganisms per gram of soil. Among all these microorganisms, bacterias and fungi are the most common. All these microorganisms in the soil interact with each other to create constantly altering conditions. The interactions between these multiple factors are responsible for various types of soil in a particular place and constitute a distinct branch of agriculture microbiology called soil microbiology.
The agricultural industry consists of anything grown or raised for human use, such as livestock, lumber, flowers, and harvesting plants to feed or sell, etc. It is one of the oldest industries in the world, almost thousands of years old. The agricultural industry has changed a lot in the last 100 years. Now, agriculturalists can grow more crops in small spaces. The cost of farming is reduced. Advance study in soil microbiology and biotechnology has brought many changes in agriculture like better quality and quantity crops, improvement in soil fertilisation, etc.
Soil enzyme increase the reaction rate at which plant residues decompose and release plant available nutrients.
The substance acted upon by soil enzyme is called substrate.
Eg. Glucosidase(soil enzyme) cleaves glucose from glucoside(substrate),
1.Constitutive
Always present in nearly constant amounts in a cell (not affected by addition of any particular substrate…genes always expressed.) (pyro-phosphatase).
2.Inducible
Present only in trace amounts or not at all, but quickly increases in concentration when its substrate is present. (Amidase).
Both enzymes are present in the soil.
Oxidoreductases – Oxidation reduction reaction (Dehydrogenase, Catalase, Peroxidase)
Transferases – The transfer of group of atoms from donor to an acceptor molecule. (Aminotransferases, Rhodonase)
Hydrolases – Hydrolytic cleavage of bonds. (Phosphatase, Cellulase, Urease)
Lysates – Cleavage of bonds other than hydrolysis or oxidation.
Isomerases – Isomerisation reaction.
Ligases – Formation of bonds by the cleavage of ATP. (Acetyl-CoA carboxylase)
Theoretical background
Cont’d
Ion exchangers
There are three classes of ion exchangers , these include
Resins
Gels
Inorganic exchangers
Selectivity for ion exchange
In general , ion exchangers favour the binding of ions of
Higher charge
Decreased hydrated radius
Increased polarizability
Ion exchange resins are used for the separation of small molecules.
Ion exchange gels are used for the separation of large molecules like protiens ,nucleic acids.
Separations involving harsh chemical conditions(high temperature , high radiation levels, strongly basic solutions or powerful oxidizing agents) employ inorganic ion exchangers
Advantages
Detectability: useful for the detection of many in-organic salts and organic ions with poor uv absorptivity like alkyl amines or sulfonates.
Preparative separations: usually preferred because of the availability of volatile buffers . volatile buffers makes the removal of mobile phase easier.
Useful to resolve very complex samples, i.e in the case of multi step separation
Useful for separation of mixtures of biological origin, in organic salts and some organo- metallics
Applications
Conversion from one salt to other e.g we can prepare tetra propyl ammonium hydroxide from a tetra propyl salt of some other anion.
household (laundry detergents and water filters) to produce soft water
Ion exchange is used to prepare de-ionized water
separate and purify metals
Dealkalization
analysis and purification of immunoglobulins
Separation of inorganic ions
An atmospheric circulation pattern occurring in the tropics and circulation is intimately related to the trade winds, tropical rainbelts, subtropical deserts and the jetstreams.
Process
Air rises up into the atmosphere at or near the equator, flows toward the poles above the surface of the Earth, returns to the Earth’s surface in the subtropics, and flows back towards the equator converging with its counterpart from northern or southern hemisphere.
The Hadley cells show seasonal variation in their intensity, geographical extent and latitudinal position.
Hadley cell
History
Need of mapping circulation?
Early Ideas on Trade Winds
British Debate
Hadley Principle’s birth
George Hadley (1735)
Why this happens?
Energy Balance
30 N and 30 S there is a surplus of radiation
Net deficit at all greater latitudes
mechanisms to transport the surplus energy towards the poles
Cont’d
Cont’d
Mechanism Explained!
Flow of air occurs because the Sun heats air at the Earth’s surface near the equator.
warm air rises, creating a band of low pressure at the equator.
Rising air reaches the top of the troposphere (10-15 kms) above Earth’s surface, air flows towards north and south poles.
The Hadley cell eventually returns air to the surface of the Earth in the subtropics, near 30 degrees north or south latitude.
Cont’d
1) ITCZ 2)mid-latitude precipitation zone
ITCZ
ITCZ and Hadley cells are not stationary
Move north and south with the position of sun
Presence of ITCZ produces rain in over that area
Evidences
Evidence of poleward expansion
Evidence of Solar Influence
UV irradiance and ozone heating in the upper stratosphere.
cyclic variations in relationship invisible in the long-term average.
Experimental observations?
Expansion of about 2 to 4.5 degrees of latitude since 1979.
The expansion of the Hadley circulation implies a poleward expansion of the band of subtropical subsidence, leading to enhanced mid-latitude tropospheric warming and poleward shifts of the subtropical dry zone.
This would contribute to an increased frequency of midlatitude droughts in both hemispheres.
Poleward expansion
Both observational outgoing longwave radiation and precipitation datasets show an annual average total poleward expansion of the Hadley cells of about 3.6o latitude.
A widening of the Hadley cell has also been seen in recent satellite observations
Cont’d
Analysis of upper tropospheric humidity, cloud amount, surface air temperature, and vertical velocity confirm that changes are associated with a decadal-time-scale strengthening of the tropical Hadley circulations.
Equatorial convective regions have intensified in up-ward motion and moistened, while both the equatorial and subtropical subsidence regions have become drier and less cloudy.
Probiotics- unfolding their potential in boosting poultry industryX S
Definition:
“Living microorganisms when conferred in sufficient amount on the host, will render beneficial effects on health.”(FAO/WHO)
Lactobacillus, Candida, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Bifidobacterium, Aspergillus, and Saccharomyces spp.
History
Élie Metchnikoff (20th century)
Werner Kolath(1953)
Probiotics for poultry
Need of Probiotics?
Selection criteria
Probiotics in poultry industry
First decisive incident
Commercial vs. wild chicken
Selection criteria
Probiotic requirement in poultry (concept)
How probiotics act?
Maintain normal intestinal microflora
competitive exclusion and resistance
Change metabolism
speeding digestive enzyme activity
Perk up feed intake and digestion
Diminish bacterial enzyme activity and ammonia production
Stimulate the immune system
Evaluation of probiotics on poultry
Growth performance
Intestinal microbiota and morphology
Immune response
Meat quality/chicken caracass
Side effects(toxicity of ingredients)
Growth performance
broilers fed with two probiotic species put on more weight(Lan et al.,2003 )
weight gain significantly higher in probiotic fed birds(Kabir et al.,2004) .
inactivated probiotics have constructive actions on the production achievement (Huang et al.,2004).
Cont’d
values of giblets and dressing percentage elevated for probiotic fed broilers (Mahanjan et al.,1999)
Intestinal microbiota and morphology
Probiotics inhibited pathogens by dwelling on intestinal wall space(Kabir et al.,2005 )
Birds fed dietary B. subtilis for 28 days displayed better growth and prominent intestinal histologies. (Samanya and Yamauchi.,2002)
Chicks given Lactobacillus strains had less amount of coliforms in cecal grindings(Watkins and Kratzer.,1983 ).
Cont’d
L. salivarius 3d strain decreased the number of Clostridium perfringens and Salmonella enteritidis (Kizerwetter-Swida and Binek., 2009).
Probiotic species have an implicit action on regulation of intestinal microflora and pathogen occlusion (Higgins et al., 2007)
Immune response
Higher amount of antibody production(Kabir et al.,2005 )
Improved serum and intestinal antibodies to a foreign antigens in chickens (Haghighi et al.,2005)
Probiotics protected broilers against Eimeria acervulina infection even with a moderate dose (Dalloul et al.,2003)
Cont’d
Better local immune defenses against coccidiosis.
Splenocytes and cecal tonsil cells, STAT2 and STAT4 genes were greatly stimulated and the expression of STAT2, STAT4, IL-18, IFN-alpha, and IFN-gamma genes in cecal tonsil cells were up-regulated after treating with L. acidophilus DNA.
Additive probiotic supplements were ineffective on systemic IgG (Midilli et al.,2008 ).
Techno Trash Toxicity
Xarrin Sindhu
Objectives
To impart information on this topic
Familiarize you with:
hazards
Laws
initiatives
Provide solutions
e-cycle
Reduce
reuse
Contents
What is Techno-trash/E-Waste ?
Trends & Insights
Problems
Toxic components of E-waste
Legislations
International
National
E-cycling
Introduction
How Technology becomes Trash?
Changes and advancement in technology
Digital TV conversion, Cell phone upgrades, software upgrade
Changes in fashion, style and status
Attractive offer from manufacturers
Small life of equipments
Can’t change battery in your I-pod
Disposable printers
List of most used and frequently replaced electronics
Sales in Electronics
Cont’d
Statistics(USA-EPA)
E-waste forms 3-5% of municipal waste
100,000 pounds of CDs become out-dated, useless or unwanted in USA alone/month
5.5 million boxes of software go to landfills or incinerators/month
Why e-waste a problem?
Products are quickly obsolete and discarded
Non-biodegradable
difficult to recycle
Discarded electronics are managed badly
More e-waste goes to landfills
Most recyclers don’t recycle, they export
Prison recycling, high Tech chain gang
Contains hazardous materials
Heavy metals and toxins(lead, cadmium, beryllium, mercury, and brominated flame retardants.)
Chemicals in Tecno-trash
Computer trash, dangerous practices to process it and hazards
Effects On Environment
Pollution of Ground-Water.
Acidification of soil.
accounts for 40 % of the lead and 75 % of the heavy metals found in landfills.
Air Pollution.
Effect on human health
Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems, blood
systems and kidney damage
Affects brain development of children
Chronic damage to the brain
Respiratory and skin disorders due to bioaccumulation in fishes
Asthmatic bronchitis
DNA damage
Reproductive and developmental problems
Immune system damage
Lung Cancer
Damage to heart, liver and spleen
A Global Pinball Game: Tracking E-Waste
Waste without frontiers
Exports of charity or grief?
Donated electronics without training/ infrastructure assured.
Donated electronics without end-of-Life Plan
Exports of near end-of-life equipment
Exports without a reuse market
Digital Dump: Exporting High-Tech Re-use and Abuse
No rigorous studies of exactly how e-waste exported to developing nations
50-80 % of waste collected by recyclers ends up getting exported
Cont’d
Huge quantities of hazardous electronic wastes exported to China, Pakistan and India
US exports 70% of e-waste
China: largest e-waste importer
Guiyu Region, China
100,000 e‐Waste workers
processed in operations that are extremely harmful to human health and the environment
E-waste destinations
Pakistan as a dumping site
How it is handled?
Dangerous practices adopted by people in working on Techno-trash
Atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs) are smog like regional scale plumes of air pollution(brown haze >1 mile thick) that consist of copious amounts of tiny particles of soot, sulphates, nitrates, fly ash and many other pollutants caused mainly by the burning of fossil fuels and firewood
ABCs start as indoor and outdoor air pollution consisting of particles (referred to as primary aerosols) and pollutant gases, such as NOx, CO, SO2, NH3, and hundreds of organic gases and acids.
First observation (1990)
global phenomenon and are associated with human-generated air pollution
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
2. Soil Microbiology
It is branch of science dealing with study of soil
microorganisms and their activities in the soil, their
functions, and how they affect soil properties
form a very small fraction of soil mass (volume of less
than 1%)
In the upper layer of soil (top soil up to 10-30 cm depth
i.e. Horizon A), the microbial population is very high
which decreases with depth of soil
3. Importance of microorganisms
affect the structure and fertility of different soils.
contribute to nutrient availability in soil(OM
decomposition, humus formation, N-fixation, seed
germination)
manage soil stability by different biochemical processes
Degrade pesticides and chemicals in soil
Contribute the growth and success of the plants and
overall ecosystem of a soil environment.
5. Bacteria
smallest organisms in the soil
Prokaryotic(simple cell structure with no internal
organelles)
most abundant microorganisms in the soil
Serve many important purposes, one of those being
nitrogen fixation among other biochemical processes.
6. Biochemical processes of bacteria
Nitrogen fixation(Nitrobacter sp.)
Degradation (Sulphur degradation, hydrocarbon
degradation etc)
Used for remediation (Pseudomonas sp. etc)
7. Actinomycetes
similar to both bacteria and fungi
have characteristics linking them to both groups.
missing evolutionary link between bacteria and fungi
Produce antibiotics
9. Fungi
abundant after bacteria
food sources for other organisms
beneficial symbiotic relationships with plants or other
organisms
reduce crop residues
biochemically process nutrients to improve the soil
split into different species based on size, shape and
color of their spores, which are used to reproduce.
10. Factors effecting growth of fungi
quality as well as quantity of OM in the soil has a
direct correlation to the growth of fungi
fungi abundant in in acidic areas compared to bacteria
Fungi also grows well in dry, arid soils (aerobic, or
dependent on oxygen)
11. Algae
Algae can make its own nutrients through a process
known as photosynthesis
distributed evenly wherever sunlight and moderate
moisture is available
do not have to be on the soil surface or directly exposed
to sun rays
can live below the soil surface as long as the algae has
uniform temperature and moisture conditions.
12. Algae in soil
Possess the character of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in
association with other organisms like fungi, mosses, and
liverworts
association fix nitrogen symbiotically in rice fields.
Plays important role in the maintenance of soil fertility
especially in tropical soils
Add organic matter to soil when die and thus increase the
amount of organic carbon in soil
Most of soil algae (especially BGA) act as cementing agent
in binding soil particles and thereby reduce/prevent soil
erosion
13. Cont’d
Mucilage secreted by the BGA is hygroscopic in nature
and thus helps in increasing water retention capacity
of soil for longer time/period
Soil algae through the process of photosynthesis
liberate large quantity of oxygen in the soil
environment and thus facilitate the aeration in
submerged soils or oxygenate the soil environment
help in checking the loss of nitrates through leaching
and drainage especially in un-cropped soils
They help in weathering of rocks and building up of
soil structure
15. Types of flagellates
smallest members of the protozoa group, and can be
divided further based on whether
Non chlorophyll-containing flagellates found mostly in
soil and flagellates that contain chlorophyll typically
occur in aquatic conditions.
distinguished by their flagella
16. Amoeba
larger than flagellates and move in a different way
slug-like properties and pseudopodia
does not have permanent appendages
18. Soil microbes and soil structure
Soil structure dependent on stable aggregates of soil
particles
Soil organisms play important role in soil aggregation
Constituents of soil are organic matter,
polysaccharides, lignins and gums synthesized by soil
microbes plays important role in cementing of soil
particles
cells and mycelial strands of fungi and actinomycetes
play important role in soil aggregation
19. Cont’d
Different soil microorganisms, having soil binding
properties are graded in the order as:
fungi > actinomycetes > gum producing bacteria >
yeasts
Examples :
○ Fungi like Rhizopus, Mucor, Chaetomium,Fusarium,
Cladasporium, Rhizoctonia, Aspergillus, Trichoderma
○ Bacteria like Azofobacler, Rhizobium Bacillus
and Xanthomonas.
20. Soil microbes and plant growth
best medium for plant growth.
convert complex organic nutrients into simpler
inorganic forms which are readily absorbed by the
plant for growth.
produce variety of substances like IAA, gibberellins,
antibiotics etc. which directly or indirectly promote
the plant growth.
21. Biological nitrogen fixation
microorganisms fix 60% nitrogen for requirement of
plants
Two groups of microorganisms are involved in the
process of BNF
Non-symbiotic (free living):
aerobic heterotrophs ( Azotobacter, Pseudomonas,
Achromobacter)
aerobic autotrophs (Nostoc, Anabena, Calothrix, BGA)
anaerobic heterotrophs (Clostridium, Kelbsiella.
Desulfovibrio) o
anaerobic Autotrophs (Chlorobium, Chromnatium,
Rhodospirillum, Meihanobacterium etc)
25. Biogeochemical Cycles and
microbes
Biogeochemical cycles: Recycling (oxidation and
reduction) of chemical elements
carbon cycle (role of microoganisms in this cycle)
nitrogen cycle(role of microorganisms in this cycle)
ammonification, nitrification, denitrification, and
nitrogen fixation.
sulfur cycle (role of microorganisms in this cycle)
38. Soil microorganisms as biocontrol
agents
Trichoderma sp. and Gleocladium sp. are used for
biological control of seed and soil borne diseases
Fungal genera Entomophthora, Beauveria,
Metarrhizium and protozoa Maltesiagrandis
Malameba locustiae etc are used in the management
of insect pests.
Bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis, Pseudomonas are
used in cotton against Angular leaf spot and boll
worms.
39. The Degradation/Detoxification of
Synthetic Chemicals
Natural organic matter is easily degraded by microbes
Degradation/detoxification of the toxic chemicals or
pesticides: bacterial genera like Pseudomonas,
Clostridium, Bacillus, Thiobacillus, Achromobacter etc.
and fungal genera like Trichoderma, Penicillium,
Aspergillus, Rhizopus, and Fusarium
Biodegradation of hydrocarbons: Natural hydrocarbons
in soil like waxes, paraffin’s, oils etc are degraded by fungi,
bacteria and actinomycetes. E.g. ethane (C2H6) a paraffin
hydrocarbon is metabolized and degraded by
Mycobacteria, Nocardia, Streptomyces, Pseudomonas,
Flavobacterium and several fungi
41. Prospectives of Microbes in soil
Bioremediation: Use of microbes to detoxify or degrade
pollutants; enhanced by nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer
Bioaugmentation: Addition of specific microbes to
facilitate degradation of pollutant
Biostimulation: Practice of addition of nitrogen and
phosphorus to stimulate indigenous microorganisms in soil.
Bioventing: Process/way of Biostimulation by which gases
stimulants like oxygen and methane are added or forced into
soil to stimulate microbial activity
Composting:matter treated with aerobic thermophilic
microorganisms to degrade contaminants
42. Impact of soil properties on
microbes &Bioindication
Nutrient
Moisture
Aeration
pH
Temperature
43. Threats to microbes in soil
Soil degradation (erosion, Invasive specie, Global
warming, Land use change, chemical pollution) which
is accelerated by anthropogenic activities
Climate driven factors such as temperature,
precipitation, wind or rain intensity can contribute in
the distribution of soil organic matter
44. Cont’d
soil compaction and reduction of soil porosity reduces
of available habitats for soil organisms
Alteration of soil aeration and humidity status due to
soil compaction can seriously impact the activity of
soil organisms.
Oxygen limitation can modify microbial activity
(favouring microbes that can withstand anaerobic
conditions. This alters the types and distribution of all
organisms found in the rest of the soil food web
45. Salinity
salt concentration can affect the overall metabolism of
plants and soil biota
Many bacterial species have optimal salinity
concentrations and enter a dormant state ( dormancy)
if the optimal range is exceeded, resulting in inactive
states.
extremely sensitive to salinisation.
Lead to desertification and loss of soil biodiversity
46. Invasive species
Urbanisation, land-use change in general and climate
change, open up possibilities for species expansion and
suggest that they will become a growing threat to soil
biodiversity in the coming years.
Invasive species can have major direct and indirect
impacts on soil services and native biodiversity
Invasive plants will alter nutrient dynamics and thus
the abundance of microbial species in soil, especially
of those exhibiting specific dependencies (e.g.
mycorrhiza)
47. Anthropogenic influence on soil
microbiota
Anthropogenic processes that influence soil moicrobiota
include:
Decreased OM: Conversion of (semi-)natural ecosystems to
agriculture and changes in land use (e.g. conversion of arable
to grassland). For instance, the conversion of natural to
agricultural ecosystems usually causes depletion of 50 to 75%
of the previous soil carbon pool.
Deep ploughing leads to organic matter dilution within soil.
Agricultural ecosystems generally contain less SOC than their
potential capacity because of the severe losses due to
accelerated erosion and leaching and because of the
increased respiration rate in ploughed soils, due to the
enhanced aerobic status of deeper soil layers
48. Chemical
pollutant
Affected soil
organisms
Affected soil
function
Affected soil
service
Pesticides Biological
regulators, chemical
engineers
OM decomposition,
mineralisation
Nutrient cycling,
soil fertility, water
regulation
GM plants Chemical engineers Mineralization, OM
decomposition
Nutrient cycling,
soil fertility
Industrial chemicals Chemical engineers Nutrient cycling,
soil fertility
Possible impacts of chemical pollution on
soil biodiversity and its impacts on soil
organisms
49. Cont’d
Artificial removal or decrease of litter due to land
conversion (e.g. deforestation)
Forest fires
Over-grazing
50. Chemical pollutants
degradation of the pesticide effects active saprotrophic
fungi
microbial respiration
nutrient transformation
enzymatic activity (i.e. alteration in the efficiency in
pesticide sulphonyl ureas, for instance targets the
enzymes involved in the synthesis of the amino acids
valine, leucine and isoleucine harms bacteria and
fungi due to high concentrations
51. Use of Agrochemicals
overuse of some of these chemicals changes soil
composition and disrupts the balance of
microorganisms in the soil
stimulates the growth of harmful bacteria at the
expense of beneficial kinds
52. GMOs
Horizontal transfer of genes between soil micro-
organisms may be facilitated by vector DNA from
genetically engineered plants, resulting in such
changes or disturbances in the functioning of the
micro-organisms that soil ecology and fertility may be
affected
cumulative loss of soil biodiversity and decreased
fertility
E.g transgenic cyanobacteria carrying the BT gene and
BT toxin production in soil
53. Land sealing
soils covered by impermeable layers of asphalt,
concrete or other sealing materials.
lead to a slow death of most soil organisms due to
nutrient depletion and disturbance of biochemical
cycles
In the future, soil sealing is expected to continue at an
increasing rate