Introduction Types of Research Research approaches Key points of Research Planning a Research Project Research Question and its Generation Hypothesis Generation Sampling methods Questionnaire development and design Preparing a Research Proposal Validity & Reliability of Research Writing a Research Reports

1. Course contentsCourse contents
 IntroductionIntroduction
 Types of ResearchTypes of Research
 Research approachesResearch approaches
 Key points of ResearchKey points of Research
 Planning a Research ProjectPlanning a Research Project
 Research Question and its GenerationResearch Question and its Generation
 Hypothesis GenerationHypothesis Generation
 Sampling methodsSampling methods
 Questionnaire development and designQuestionnaire development and design
 Preparing a Research ProposalPreparing a Research Proposal
 Validity & Reliability of ResearchValidity & Reliability of Research
 Writing a Research ReportsWriting a Research Reports
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

2. BooksBooks
1.1.How to Design & EvaluateHow to Design & Evaluate
Research in EducationResearch in Education
by J R Fraenkel & N E Wallen,by J R Fraenkel & N E Wallen,
2.2. The Practice of Social ResearchThe Practice of Social Research
by Earl Babbieby Earl Babbie
3.3. Research MethodsResearch Methods
by D H McBurneyby D H McBurney
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

3. AimsAims
 Provide basic information needed toProvide basic information needed to
understand the research process,understand the research process,
from idea formulation through datafrom idea formulation through data
analysis and interpretationanalysis and interpretation
 Enable to use this knowledge toEnable to use this knowledge to
design own research investigation ondesign own research investigation on
a topic of personal interesta topic of personal interest
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

4. Research?Research?
 Find out somethingFind out something
 Obtaining informationObtaining information
 a continued search fora continued search for
understandingunderstanding
 Reliable knowledgeReliable knowledge
 Eagerness to knowEagerness to know
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

5. The search for knowledgeThe search for knowledge
The origin of research is ‘curiosity’,The origin of research is ‘curiosity’,
• Human beings are unique creationHuman beings are unique creation
• Highly developed nervous systemHighly developed nervous system
• Enabled them to develop sounds andEnabled them to develop sounds and
symbolssymbols (letters & numbers)(letters & numbers)
• That made communication and recordingThat made communication and recording
possiblepossible (Qs, observations, experiences, ideas)(Qs, observations, experiences, ideas)
• Initially, believed in super-naturalInitially, believed in super-natural
powers which manipulates nature (powers which manipulates nature (like sun,like sun,
stars, rain, wind)stars, rain, wind)
• curiosity led to speculate about thecuriosity led to speculate about the
operation of universeoperation of universe
• Gradually they began to observe cause-Gradually they began to observe cause-
and-effect relationshipand-effect relationship (theory)(theory) BY:MADDY.KALEEM

6. Ways of knowingWays of knowing
 Sensory experienceSensory experience
- see, hear, smell, taste, feel – not reliable- see, hear, smell, taste, feel – not reliable
 Agreement with othersAgreement with others
- can be misleading- can be misleading
 ExpertsExperts
- not perfect in given field- not perfect in given field
 Logic – ReasoningLogic – Reasoning
• Sometimes failsSometimes fails
 Scientific Research methodScientific Research method
• Science as a method of knowingScience as a method of knowing
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

7. ScienceScience
 An approach to gather knowledgeAn approach to gather knowledge
 Consists of:Consists of:
• Development of theoryDevelopment of theory
• Testing of hypotheses deduced from theoryTesting of hypotheses deduced from theory
 Theory is an attempt to explain someTheory is an attempt to explain some
phenomenaphenomena
 Hence scientists are engaged in use,Hence scientists are engaged in use,
modification or creation of theorymodification or creation of theory
 Scientists may useScientists may use
• Empirical approach (experimentation/dataEmpirical approach (experimentation/data
collection)collection)
• Analytical approach (logical reasoning/dataAnalytical approach (logical reasoning/data
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

8. Reliable knowledgeReliable knowledge
Through scientific methodThrough scientific method
 Problem identificationProblem identification
 Clarifying problemClarifying problem
 What information will solve problemWhat information will solve problem
- Already known vs. new piece of work- Already known vs. new piece of work
 Organizing the informationOrganizing the information
 Interpreting the resultsInterpreting the results
 Presenting the resultsPresenting the results
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

9. Scientific methodScientific method
 Is the process of reachingIs the process of reaching
dependable solutions to the problemsdependable solutions to the problems
through the planned and systematicthrough the planned and systematic
collection, analysis and interpretationcollection, analysis and interpretation
of dataof data
 Is very important tool for advancingIs very important tool for advancing
knowledge, promoting progress andknowledge, promoting progress and
developmentdevelopment
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

10. Definition of ResearchDefinition of Research
 ReRe ++ searchsearch, Means search again, Means search again
 ResearchResearch is defined as the scientificis defined as the scientific
method of solving a problemmethod of solving a problem
 AA problemproblem is a question whoseis a question whose
answer we do not know: but allanswer we do not know: but all
questions are not research problems.questions are not research problems.
 AA Research problemResearch problem is a factualis a factual
problem which have alternativeproblem which have alternative
answers and which required ‘new’answers and which required ‘new’
knowledge for its solution.knowledge for its solution.
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

11. Research?Research?
 Involves observations, descriptionInvolves observations, description
and analysis of ‘what happens underand analysis of ‘what happens under
certain circumstances?’certain circumstances?’
 Scholarly investigation in search forScholarly investigation in search for
truths, facts and certaintiestruths, facts and certainties
 Systematic investigation on aSystematic investigation on a
subject, in order to establish facts orsubject, in order to establish facts or
principles and reach new conclusionsprinciples and reach new conclusions
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

12. Basic Skills required for ResearchBasic Skills required for Research
Ability toAbility to
 ThinkThink
 ListenListen
 Ask questionsAsk questions
 Make notesMake notes
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

13. Features of ResearchFeatures of Research
 Research Method is used with aResearch Method is used with a
purpose such as to verify an oldpurpose such as to verify an old
theory or to find out a new area oftheory or to find out a new area of
knowledge.knowledge.
 Every Research Method through itsEvery Research Method through its
research activity gives birth to a newresearch activity gives birth to a new
theory or modifies the old theory. Attheory or modifies the old theory. At
least, it may come out with a newleast, it may come out with a new
hypothesis rejecting the old one.hypothesis rejecting the old one.
 The basic characteristics of researchThe basic characteristics of research
is systematic and reliable ways ofis systematic and reliable ways of
finding out or deepeningfinding out or deepening
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

14. Types of ResearchTypes of Research
Basic ResearchBasic Research
• ‘‘Gathering for knowledge’s sake isGathering for knowledge’s sake is
termed as ‘pure’, or ‘basic’ ortermed as ‘pure’, or ‘basic’ or
‘fundamental’ research”.‘fundamental’ research”.
• fundamental researchfundamental research is mainlyis mainly
concerned with generalization and withconcerned with generalization and with
the formulation of a theorythe formulation of a theory
• Has no immediate planned applicationHas no immediate planned application
• The purpose is to extend the frontiers ofThe purpose is to extend the frontiers of
knowledge.knowledge.
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

15. Applied ResearchApplied Research
• The Applied aims at finding a solutionThe Applied aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem, facing afor an immediate problem, facing a
society or an industrial / businesssociety or an industrial / business
organizationorganization
• The purpose is to improve product orThe purpose is to improve product or
process; and testing theories in actualprocess; and testing theories in actual
problem situationsproblem situations
Types of ResearchTypes of Research
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

16. Types of ResearchTypes of Research
Historical Research:Historical Research:
• Its describesIts describes what waswhat was
• The process involves investigating,The process involves investigating,
recording, analyzing and interpretingrecording, analyzing and interpreting
the events of the past.the events of the past.
• For the purpose of discoveringFor the purpose of discovering
generalizations that are helpful ingeneralizations that are helpful in
understanding the past and present andunderstanding the past and present and
to a limited extent, in anticipating theto a limited extent, in anticipating the
future.future.
• Historical method may be defined as aHistorical method may be defined as a
system in which present day events aresystem in which present day events are
studies with reference to the events thatstudies with reference to the events that
took place in the past.took place in the past. BY:MADDY.KALEEM

17. Types of ResearchTypes of Research
Descriptive Research:Descriptive Research:
• Its describesIts describes what iswhat is
• Describing recording and analyzing andDescribing recording and analyzing and
interpreting conditions that exist.interpreting conditions that exist.
• Describes the prevailing conditions andDescribes the prevailing conditions and
trendstrends
• Present-oriented research.Present-oriented research.
• Are often identified as status surveys.Are often identified as status surveys.
These are to determine the presentThese are to determine the present
status of a given phenomenon.status of a given phenomenon.
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

18. Types of ResearchTypes of Research
Experimental Research:Experimental Research:
• It describesIt describes what will bewhat will be
• It is future-oriented research.It is future-oriented research.
• This is, by far, the most powerful method forThis is, by far, the most powerful method for
deriving dependable knowledge. Most of thederiving dependable knowledge. Most of the
natural and applied sciences involvenatural and applied sciences involve
experimental research.experimental research.
• It is a method of obtaining new knowledgeIt is a method of obtaining new knowledge
under controlled conditions to explain cause-under controlled conditions to explain cause-
and-effect relationships.and-effect relationships.
• Experimental method has been regarded asExperimental method has been regarded as
the sole basis of scientific method.the sole basis of scientific method.
• The use of this method has primarily beenThe use of this method has primarily been
made in the physical science where themade in the physical science where the
subject-matter can be given the laboratorysubject-matter can be given the laboratory
treatment under controlled conditions.treatment under controlled conditions.
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

19. Correlation researchCorrelation research
 measures the relationship betweenmeasures the relationship between
two or more variables or gives antwo or more variables or gives an
indication of how one variable mayindication of how one variable may
predict another. Exploratory researchpredict another. Exploratory research
is a type of research conductedis a type of research conducted
because a problem has not beenbecause a problem has not been
clearly defined.clearly defined.
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

20. Exploratory researchExploratory research
 helps determine the best researchhelps determine the best research
design, data collection methods, anddesign, data collection methods, and
selection of subjects. Given that it isselection of subjects. Given that it is
fundamental in nature, exploratoryfundamental in nature, exploratory
research often concludes that aresearch often concludes that a
perceived problem does not actuallyperceived problem does not actually
exist.exist.
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

21. ResearchResearch
PurposePurpose New knowledgeNew knowledge ValidationValidation
TheoryTheory BuildingBuilding VerificationVerification
ApproachApproach InductiveInductive DeductiveDeductive
LiteratureLiterature LittleLittle LargeLarge
HypothesisHypothesis Data collectedData collected
first, hypothesisfirst, hypothesis
developeddeveloped
Hypothesis isHypothesis is
generated fromgenerated from
existing literat.existing literat.
MethodMethod Descriptive/Descriptive/
ExploratoryExploratory
ExplanatoryExplanatory
TypeType ExperimentalExperimental AnalyticalAnalytical
BiasBias SubjectiveSubjective ObjectiveObjective
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

22. Research ProcessResearch Process
The steps to be followed in conducting aThe steps to be followed in conducting a
researchresearch
1.1. Formulating the Research ProblemFormulating the Research Problem
2.2. Extensive Literature SurveyExtensive Literature Survey
3.3. Developing the Hypothesis/Research QsDeveloping the Hypothesis/Research Qs
4.4. Preparing the Research DesignPreparing the Research Design
5.5. Collection of DataCollection of Data
6.6. Analysis of DataAnalysis of Data
7.7. Hypothesis TestingHypothesis Testing
8.8. Generalization and InterpretationGeneralization and Interpretation
9.9. Preparation of the Report or Presentation ofPreparation of the Report or Presentation of
Results, i.e. Formal write-up of ConclusionsResults, i.e. Formal write-up of Conclusions
reached.reached.
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

23. Decisions in ResearchDecisions in Research
Formulating
research
Question
What? Why?
How?
Sampling
Whom?
How many?
Methodology
(What?
Why?)
Design
How? When?
In what order?
Presentation
What form?
What structure?
A Question to be addressed
An idea/hypothesis to be tested
An issue to be explored
A problem to be solved
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

24. Conceptualization of various terms usedConceptualization of various terms used
 Researcher should be clear about theResearcher should be clear about the
meaning of every term/concept bemeaning of every term/concept be
usedused
 Literature review will helpLiterature review will help
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

25. Critical review of literatureCritical review of literature
 To find out different areas coveredTo find out different areas covered
by various studies in the fieldby various studies in the field
 To understand terminology/conceptsTo understand terminology/concepts
 To find under researched areas forTo find under researched areas for
focusing and ignore that arefocusing and ignore that are
thoroughly investigatedthoroughly investigated
 To find merits and demerits ofTo find merits and demerits of
research designsresearch designs
 Will help in discussing the resultsWill help in discussing the results
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

26. Research ProposalResearch Proposal
 A written plan for conducting studyA written plan for conducting study
 it shows intentions and clarifies purposeit shows intentions and clarifies purpose
and justificationand justification
 Provides step by step planProvides step by step plan
 Identifies problem, states questions orIdentifies problem, states questions or
hypotheses, determines variables andhypotheses, determines variables and
defines termsdefines terms
 The subjects to be included in sample, theThe subjects to be included in sample, the
instruments to be used, the researchinstruments to be used, the research
design chosen, the procedures followed,design chosen, the procedures followed,
and how data will be analyzedand how data will be analyzed
 All above are spelled in detail and a partialAll above are spelled in detail and a partial
review of previous related researchreview of previous related research
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

27. Key points for Research IKey points for Research I
Select and justify research topicSelect and justify research topic
 As brief and precise as possibleAs brief and precise as possible
 Projects the scope of problem inProjects the scope of problem in
generalized termsgeneralized terms
 Research process starts with idea/titleResearch process starts with idea/title
 A short general statement of why the topicA short general statement of why the topic
is important from an academic/practitioneris important from an academic/practitioner
and policy angle?and policy angle?
 What general questions underline theWhat general questions underline the
topic?topic?
 What previous research has beenWhat previous research has been
conducted in this area?conducted in this area?
 What are key definitional issues?What are key definitional issues?
 What are strengths and weaknesses ofWhat are strengths and weaknesses of
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

28. Selecting a problemSelecting a problem
 Most important factor – range of potentialMost important factor – range of potential
topicstopics
 If not selected properly, more frustrationIf not selected properly, more frustration
and disappointmentsand disappointments
 Sensation – perception – conceptionSensation – perception – conception
 Should be testable by empirical andShould be testable by empirical and
pragmatic approachpragmatic approach
 controversial judgments be avoidedcontroversial judgments be avoided
 Not too insignificance or too expensiveNot too insignificance or too expensive
 Not too general but specificNot too general but specific
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

29. Factors to be consideredFactors to be considered
 Choice & preferenceChoice & preference
 Internal & external stimulusInternal & external stimulus
 Social & academic expectationsSocial & academic expectations
 Time & cost factorsTime & cost factors
 Availability of resourcesAvailability of resources
 Infrastructural supportInfrastructural support
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

30. Questions to be answeredQuestions to be answered
Is it feasible?Is it feasible?
 Solvable – often tendency to tackleSolvable – often tendency to tackle
of great magnitudeof great magnitude
 Crucial – needs academic effort?Crucial – needs academic effort?
 Availability of variablesAvailability of variables
 The solution will have impact onThe solution will have impact on
society?society?
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

31.  Is it sensible and realistic?Is it sensible and realistic?
• A beginner may waste time that is impossibleA beginner may waste time that is impossible
or very difficultor very difficult
• Availability of good data collecting toolsAvailability of good data collecting tools
• Can significant data be collected?Can significant data be collected?
 Is sufficient time available?Is sufficient time available?
• Needs much timeNeeds much time
• Avoid routine commitmentsAvoid routine commitments
 Has it been conducted before?Has it been conducted before?
• Problem should be novelProblem should be novel
• If new, carryout empiricalIf new, carryout empirical
• At times, repeated for verification andAt times, repeated for verification and
generalizationgeneralization
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

32.  What result is predictable?What result is predictable?
• Theoretical value?Theoretical value?
• New evidence to reinforce theory? –New evidence to reinforce theory? –
negative resultsnegative results
• Will fill gap in the literature?Will fill gap in the literature?
• Testing a known theory with newTesting a known theory with new
interpretation?interpretation?
• Test work at native countryTest work at native country
• Will be accepted socially or forWill be accepted socially or for
publication? -publication? - validityvalidity
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

33. Remember…..Remember…..
 Indistinguishable and unclearIndistinguishable and unclear
problems should be avoidedproblems should be avoided
 Some introductory study is essentialSome introductory study is essential
for selecting problemsfor selecting problems
 Intended study should beIntended study should be
reasonable, cost effective and timereasonable, cost effective and time
savingsaving
 The problem selected should beThe problem selected should be
feasible, revealing and with infeasible, revealing and with in
capabilitycapability
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

34. Key points for Research IIKey points for Research II
What are the gaps in the previousWhat are the gaps in the previous
research?research?
 Which research gaps/questions areWhich research gaps/questions are
you seeking to address?you seeking to address? – scope of– scope of
the studythe study
 Why is it important to fill these gaps?Why is it important to fill these gaps?
Justify this selectionJustify this selection – position your– position your
study in the literaturestudy in the literature
What research questions will beWhat research questions will be
explored?explored? Focus the studyFocus the study
 Why are the questions important?Why are the questions important?
 BY:MADDY.KALEEM

35. ScopeScope
Depends on:Depends on:
 TimeTime
 MoneyMoney
 Access and availability of dataAccess and availability of data
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

36. Key points for Research IIIKey points for Research III
• What is your theoretical/conceptualWhat is your theoretical/conceptual
framework?framework?
 the concepts to be used, their relevance andthe concepts to be used, their relevance and
applicability to the study be indicatedapplicability to the study be indicated
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

37. Scientific investigationScientific investigation
 Always starts with the statements ofAlways starts with the statements of
solvable problemsolvable problem
 Offers a tentative solution in theOffers a tentative solution in the
form of a testable propositionform of a testable proposition
 The proposition is known asThe proposition is known as
‘hypothesis‘hypothesis’’
 A tentative theory of suppositionA tentative theory of supposition
provisionally adopted to explainprovisionally adopted to explain
certain facts and to guide in thecertain facts and to guide in the
investigation (Webster)investigation (Webster)
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

38. Key points for Research IVKey points for Research IV
 Hypothesis development?Hypothesis development? linkage to theorylinkage to theory
• What formal research propositions/hypothesesWhat formal research propositions/hypotheses
aims you are going to study?aims you are going to study?
 Hypo- means under-, thesis means aHypo- means under-, thesis means a
reasoned/rational theoryreasoned/rational theory
 TheoryTheory a set of statements abouta set of statements about
interrelationships between two or more variablesinterrelationships between two or more variables
 Accordingly, a theory which is not yet fullyAccordingly, a theory which is not yet fully
reasoned but there is some truth regardingreasoned but there is some truth regarding
relations between variablesrelations between variables
 Hence, hypothesis is an assumption in order toHence, hypothesis is an assumption in order to
study the fact and check the validity of theorystudy the fact and check the validity of theory
 It can be imaginative idea based on acquiredIt can be imaginative idea based on acquired
knowledgeknowledge
 When hypothesis is established, it becomesWhen hypothesis is established, it becomes BY:MADDY.KALEEM

39. Formulation of hypothesesFormulation of hypotheses
 Hypothesis is a testable statement ofHypothesis is a testable statement of
a relationship between two or morea relationship between two or more
variablesvariables
 It can be framed by:It can be framed by:
• Facts established by previousFacts established by previous
investigationinvestigation
• Through the researcher’s experienceThrough the researcher’s experience
• Through reasoning and logical derivationThrough reasoning and logical derivation
from theoryfrom theory
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

40. VariablesVariables
 Are the specific concepts orAre the specific concepts or
theoretical constructs, requirestheoretical constructs, requires
investigationinvestigation
 A variable that explains otherA variable that explains other
variable is called ‘independentvariable is called ‘independent
variable’variable’
 The variable being explained is calledThe variable being explained is called
‘dependent variable’‘dependent variable’
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

41. HypothesisHypothesis
 The statement showing relationshipThe statement showing relationship
between independent and dependentbetween independent and dependent
variables is called ‘hypothesis’variables is called ‘hypothesis’
 It is the prediction of possibleIt is the prediction of possible
outcomeoutcome
 Attributes:Attributes:
• Should be clear and specificShould be clear and specific
• Should have more than one outcomeShould have more than one outcome
• Should be testableShould be testable
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

42. Research designResearch design
 Right direction an important part ofRight direction an important part of
research journeyresearch journey
 If not plan well, will never successIf not plan well, will never success
 Helps to organize ideas withHelps to organize ideas with
available resourcesavailable resources
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

43. Research Design StagesResearch Design Stages
Theory
Conceptualization
Data
collection
Analysis
Writing
up
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

44. Design questionsDesign questions
 What is the study about and what must beWhat is the study about and what must be
done?done?
 Why and how is the study beingWhy and how is the study being
conducted?conducted?
 Where will study be carried out?Where will study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?What type of data is required?
 What type of data collection methods beWhat type of data collection methods be
used?used?
 Where can the data be collected?Where can the data be collected?
 How the sources of data are selected?How the sources of data are selected?
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

45. Research designResearch design
 Plan:Plan: incorporates major frameworkincorporates major framework
of activities; includes hypothesisof activities; includes hypothesis
generation and its impact on the finalgeneration and its impact on the final
analysis of data. E.g. empirical oranalysis of data. E.g. empirical or
analytical or bothanalytical or both
 Structure:Structure: is outline of integratingis outline of integrating
the variables of investigation forthe variables of investigation for
analysisanalysis
 Strategy:Strategy: refers to methods for datarefers to methods for data
collection, analysis, verification andcollection, analysis, verification and
reliabilityreliability BY:MADDY.KALEEM

46. Design questionsDesign questions
 What will be sample design?What will be sample design?
 How will data will be analyzed?How will data will be analyzed?
 How will conclusion will be drawn?How will conclusion will be drawn?
 How report shall be prepared?How report shall be prepared?
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

47. Research MethodologyResearch Methodology
 How are you going to approach thisHow are you going to approach this
topic?topic?
• Why you have selected thisWhy you have selected this
approach?approach?
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

48. Tools for data collectionTools for data collection
 Tools are means to collect dataTools are means to collect data
 Helps to analyze the responses ofHelps to analyze the responses of
related variables by carefulrelated variables by careful
interpretationinterpretation
 Tools vary in complexity, design,Tools vary in complexity, design,
administration & interpretationadministration & interpretation
 Each is appropriate for certain dataEach is appropriate for certain data
and only suits specific requirementand only suits specific requirement
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

49. Research MethodsResearch Methods
Observation:Observation:
 Researcher physically observesResearcher physically observes
situationsituation
 Opportunity for empiricalOpportunity for empirical
 Facts collected in natural settingFacts collected in natural setting
 Can relate cause and effect relationshipCan relate cause and effect relationship
 But tedious & boring, don’t knowBut tedious & boring, don’t know
behind curtainsbehind curtains
 Bias and physical difficulties may resultBias and physical difficulties may result
in errorin error
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

50. ObservationObservation
 It has been primary method of ‘inquiry’It has been primary method of ‘inquiry’
from the earliest history of scientificfrom the earliest history of scientific
activityactivity
 Observation of natural phenomena, aidedObservation of natural phenomena, aided
by systematic classification andby systematic classification and
measurement, led to development ofmeasurement, led to development of
theories and laws naturetheories and laws nature
 Observation as a research technic must beObservation as a research technic must be
systematic, with specific purpose, carefullysystematic, with specific purpose, carefully
focused and thoroughly recordedfocused and thoroughly recorded
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

51. ObservationObservation
 Like other methods, it must beLike other methods, it must be
checked for accuracy, validity andchecked for accuracy, validity and
reliabilityreliability
 Objectivity (no bias) is essentialObjectivity (no bias) is essential
 Must know significant andMust know significant and
insignificant aspectsinsignificant aspects
 Checklists and Rating scales providesChecklists and Rating scales provides
systematic means of collecting datasystematic means of collecting data
by observationby observation
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

52. Questionnaire:Questionnaire:
 The data gathering instrumentsThe data gathering instruments
through which respondents answerthrough which respondents answer
Qs or respond in writingQs or respond in writing
 It is administered personally haveIt is administered personally have
advantages, can explain purpose andadvantages, can explain purpose and
meaning of Qs that may not be clear,meaning of Qs that may not be clear,
 It is economical (cost + time), e.g.;It is economical (cost + time), e.g.;
Getting response of studentsGetting response of students
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

53. Questionnaire:Questionnaire:
 Mailed questionnaire is used whenMailed questionnaire is used when
desired data can not be achieveddesired data can not be achieved
with less cost and timewith less cost and time
 The mail survey is widely used andThe mail survey is widely used and
criticizedcriticized
 It is referred as ‘lazy way ofIt is referred as ‘lazy way of
gathering data’gathering data’
 Response rate is low, ‘why should IResponse rate is low, ‘why should I
take this trouble to help this person’take this trouble to help this person’
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

54. Questionnaire:Questionnaire:
 The Open Form:The Open Form:
• This calls for a free response fromThis calls for a free response from
respondents own wordsrespondents own words
 The Closed form:The Closed form:
• This calls for check-mark response, e.g;This calls for check-mark response, e.g;
yes/no, MCQsyes/no, MCQs
 Why did you choose to study at MUISTD?Why did you choose to study at MUISTD?
• ConvenienceConvenience
• Advice of a friendAdvice of a friend
• ReputationReputation
• Other (pl. specify)…………………Other (pl. specify)…………………
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

55. Tips for Questionnaire DesignTips for Questionnaire Design
 Beginners are not sure what they want to know,Beginners are not sure what they want to know,
and attempt to cover their field broadlyand attempt to cover their field broadly
 Also difficulty of wording Qs clearlyAlso difficulty of wording Qs clearly
 Different people have different interpretation ofDifferent people have different interpretation of
the same wordthe same word
 In interviews, this can be controlled by restatingIn interviews, this can be controlled by restating
QsQs
 In following, emphasize on underline wordIn following, emphasize on underline word
• WereWere you there last night?you there last night?
• WereWere youyou there last night?there last night?
• Were youWere you therethere last night?last night?
• Were you thereWere you there lastlast night?night?
• Were you there lastWere you there last nightnight??
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

56. Tips for Questionnaire DesignTips for Questionnaire Design
 Identify terms which can easily beIdentify terms which can easily be
misinterpretedmisinterpreted
 What is the value of your house?What is the value of your house?
• The assessed value for tax purposeThe assessed value for tax purpose
• Market valueMarket value
• What you paid for itWhat you paid for it
• What you willing it to sell forWhat you willing it to sell for
 What is present market value of yourWhat is present market value of your
house? (clear Q)house? (clear Q)
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

57. Tips for Questionnaire DesignTips for Questionnaire Design
 A simple tem ‘Age’ is often misunderstoodA simple tem ‘Age’ is often misunderstood
• When an individual is 21 years?When an individual is 21 years?
• From 21From 21stst
birthday to 22birthday to 22ndnd
birthdaybirthday
• Insurance cos. Calculate 20.6 to 21.6Insurance cos. Calculate 20.6 to 21.6
yearsyears
 Hence most appropriate is to ask date ofHence most appropriate is to ask date of
birthbirth
 Words are ambiguousWords are ambiguous
 What work you are doing now?What work you are doing now?
 Answer may be ‘filling out yourAnswer may be ‘filling out your
stupid Qs’stupid Qs’
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

58. Tips for Questionnaire DesignTips for Questionnaire Design
 Don’t use words that have no agreedDon’t use words that have no agreed
upon meaning: like frequently,upon meaning: like frequently,
occasionally, rarelyoccasionally, rarely
 Don’t use double negativeDon’t use double negative
 Are you opposed toAre you opposed to
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

59. Questionnaire:Questionnaire:
 Widely used, efficient, convenientWidely used, efficient, convenient
 Contains list of relevant questionsContains list of relevant questions
 Can be postal, interview, telephone,Can be postal, interview, telephone,
onlineonline
 For literate respondentsFor literate respondents
 Inadequate for in-depth studyInadequate for in-depth study
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

60. A good Questionnaire:A good Questionnaire:
 Meets research objectivesMeets research objectives
 Obtains valid and reliable dataObtains valid and reliable data
 Facilitates the researcher’s task andFacilitates the researcher’s task and
subsequent data processingsubsequent data processing
 Achieves the involvement ofAchieves the involvement of
respondentsrespondents
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

61. Key points for Research VKey points for Research V
Data Collection?Data Collection?
 Have you considered data access?Have you considered data access?
 What primary and secondary dataWhat primary and secondary data
sources will be used?sources will be used?
 Population and sampling issuesPopulation and sampling issues
 Units of analysis –Units of analysis – consistency withconsistency with
theorytheory
 Pilot studyPilot study
 Response rate/bias testsResponse rate/bias tests
 BY:MADDY.KALEEM

62. Primary, Secondary & Tertiary DataPrimary, Secondary & Tertiary Data
 Primary SourcesPrimary Sources
 Primary Sources are original materials onPrimary Sources are original materials on
which other research is basedwhich other research is based
 They present information in its original form,They present information in its original form,
neither interpreted nor condensed norneither interpreted nor condensed nor
evaluated by other writers.evaluated by other writers.
 A newspaper articles is a primaryA newspaper articles is a primary
source if it reports events, but asource if it reports events, but a
secondary source if it analyses andsecondary source if it analyses and
comments on those eventscomments on those events
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

63. Primary Sources GuidePrimary Sources Guide
 Primary Sources present originalPrimary Sources present original
thinking, report on discoveries, orthinking, report on discoveries, or
share new information.share new information.
 Technical ReportsTechnical Reports
 Proceedings of Meetings,Proceedings of Meetings,
Conferences and SymposiaConferences and Symposia
 Sets of data, such as censusSets of data, such as census
statisticsstatistics
 DiariesDiaries
 Auto-biographiesAuto-biographies BY:MADDY.KALEEM

64. Primary Sources GuidePrimary Sources Guide
 Interviews, surveys and fieldworkInterviews, surveys and fieldwork
 Letters and correspondenceLetters and correspondence
 Speeches, Government documentsSpeeches, Government documents
 Photographs and works of ArtsPhotographs and works of Arts
 Original Documents (Such as birthOriginal Documents (Such as birth
Certificate or trial transcripts)Certificate or trial transcripts)
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

65. Secondary Sources GuideSecondary Sources Guide
 CommentariesCommentaries
 Dictionaries and encyclopedia (may alsoDictionaries and encyclopedia (may also
be tertiary)be tertiary)
 Dissertations or theses (more usuallyDissertations or theses (more usually
primary)primary)
 Journal articles, particularly in disciplinesJournal articles, particularly in disciplines
other than science (may also be primary)other than science (may also be primary)
 Newspaper and popular magazine articlesNewspaper and popular magazine articles
(may also be primary)(may also be primary)
 Review articles and literature reviewsReview articles and literature reviews
 Textbooks (may also be tertiary)Textbooks (may also be tertiary)
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

66.  Tertiary SourcesTertiary Sources
 Works, which index organize and compileWorks, which index organize and compile
citations and show you how to usecitations and show you how to use
secondary (and sometimes primary)secondary (and sometimes primary)
 Bibliographies (may also be secondary)Bibliographies (may also be secondary)
 IndicesIndices
 AbstractsAbstracts
Tertiary Sources GuideTertiary Sources Guide
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

67. Citation of ReferenceCitation of Reference
 About Facts: Year Books / Almanacs /About Facts: Year Books / Almanacs /
ReportsReports
 About organizations / institutions:About organizations / institutions:
Directories, National, InternationalDirectories, National, International
 About works: Bibliographies, Indexes,About works: Bibliographies, Indexes,
Categories, Periodicals, Directories,Categories, Periodicals, Directories,
AbstractsAbstracts
 About any information : InternetAbout any information : Internet
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

68. Results and ImplicationsResults and Implications
 Hypothesis testing – what isHypothesis testing – what is
supported?supported?
 Linkage to theoryLinkage to theory
 Implications forImplications for
academics/practitioners/policyacademics/practitioners/policy
makers and further researchmakers and further research
 What resources are going to beWhat resources are going to be
needed to carry out the researchneeded to carry out the research??
 Have you prepared a detailedHave you prepared a detailed
research time table?research time table?
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

69. Technical Report WritingTechnical Report Writing
Introductory sectionIntroductory section
 Title page:Title page: topic, author, degree/project,topic, author, degree/project,
institute, date of submissioninstitute, date of submission
 Acknowledgement (dedication?)Acknowledgement (dedication?)
 Table of ContentsTable of Contents
 List of figuresList of figures
 List of tablesList of tables In romanIn roman
nos. i,ii..nos. i,ii..
 Abbreviation usedAbbreviation used
 Abstract/summaryAbstract/summary
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

70. Main BodyMain Body
1. Problem to be investigated1. Problem to be investigated
((page 1page 1))
 Overview of studyOverview of study
 Objectives & justification of the studyObjectives & justification of the study
 Hypothesis/research questionsHypothesis/research questions
 Definition of termsDefinition of terms
 Previous work (Not ‘literature search’)Previous work (Not ‘literature search’)
 Significance of the studySignificance of the study
 Relevance to the needs of the societyRelevance to the needs of the society
 Likely contribution to knowledgeLikely contribution to knowledge
 Structure of the reportStructure of the report
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

71. Main BodyMain Body
2. Review of related literature2. Review of related literature
 TheoryTheory
 Studies directly/indirectly relatedStudies directly/indirectly related
 Gaps/weaknesses clearly identifiedGaps/weaknesses clearly identified
 Research is based on past knowledgeResearch is based on past knowledge
 Provides evidence that researcher isProvides evidence that researcher is
familiar with what is known/unknownfamiliar with what is known/unknown
 Also helps to eliminate duplicationAlso helps to eliminate duplication
 Studies that relevant and clear be includedStudies that relevant and clear be included
BY:MADDY.KALEEM

72. Review of related literatureReview of related literature
 Reports of studies closely related problemsReports of studies closely related problems
that have been investigatedthat have been investigated
 Design of the study: procedures employedDesign of the study: procedures employed
and data collection tools usedand data collection tools used
 Sampling methods usedSampling methods used
 Variables that were definedVariables that were defined
 Extraneous factors that could have affectedExtraneous factors that could have affected
 Faults that could have been avoidedFaults that could have been avoided
 Recommendation for future researchRecommendation for future research
BY:MADDY.KALEEM