Meaning and Scope of Educational Research, Characteristics of Scientific Method, Approaches and Types of Research

1. UGC NET EDUCATION
Paper II
Research inEducation
M. VIJAYALAKSHMI
M.SC., M.PHIL. (LIFE SCIENCES), M.ED., M.PHIL. (EDUCATION),
NET (EDUCATION), PGDBI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (FORMER),
SRI RAMAKRISHNA MISSION VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (AUTONOMOUS),
COIMBATORE – 641020.

2. Unit 6: Research in Education
a) Meaning and Scope of Educational Research, Meaning and
steps of Scientific Method, Characteristics of Scientific Method
(Replicability, Precision, Falsifiability and Parsimony), Types
of Scientific Method (Exploratory, Explanatory and
Descriptive), Aims of research as a scientific activity: Problem-
solving, Theory Building and Prediction, Types of research
(Fundamental, Applied and Action), Approaches to educational
research (Quantitative and Qualitative), Designs in educational
research (Descriptive, Experimental and Historical)

3. Meaning of research
 The term research comprises of two words,
namely ‘re’ and ‘search’. Generally, ‘re’ means
again and ‘search’ means to find out.
 The search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem
is research

4. Objectives of research
 Gain familiarity with a new phenomenon or develop new insight
into a phenomenon. (Exploratory or Formulative research)
 To portray actually the characteristics of a particular individual, situation
or a group (Descriptive research)
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with it is
associated with something else. (Diagnostic research)
 To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables
(Hypothesis-testing studies or Experimental Studies)

5. Characteristics of Research
 Research is Systematic
 Research is Logical
 Research is Empirical
 Research is Deductive (Particular to general)
 Research is Replicable and Transmittable

6. Scope of Educational Research
 New branch
 Problems – innumerable
 Variously classified
 Classification of fields
 Educational Psychology
 Philosophy of Education
 Sociology of Education
 Economics of Education
 Comparative Education
 Educational Administration
 Educational Evaluation
 Educational Technology
 Teacher Education and Teacher
Behaviour
 Curriculum Construction and Text
books
 Guidance and Counselling

7. Scientific Research
 Scientific research focuses on solving problems and
pursues a step-by-step logical, organized, and rigorous
method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze
them, and draw valid conclusions therefrom.
 Thus, scientific research is not based on hunches,
experience, and intuition (though these may play a part in
final decision making), but a purposive and rigorous.

8. Research and Scientific Thinking
 Authority –Advice from ancestors
 Custom and Tradition
 Personal Experience
 Reasoning (Inductive – General to Specific; Deductive –
Specific to General)
 Scientific Enquiry

9. Scientific Method
 Inductive – From observation to hypotheses
 Deductive – from hypotheses to logical implication of the hypotheses
 Steps –
 Identification and definition of the problem
 Formulation of a hypothesis
 Implications of hypothesis through deductive reasoning
 Collection and analysis of evidence
 Verification, rejection or modification of hypothesis

10. Characteristics of Scientific Method
 Replicability - The results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again
and again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar
circumstances. If the results are repeated, we will gain confidence in the
scientific nature of our research.
 Falsifiability - A good theory or hypothesis also must be Falsifiable, which
means that it must be stated in a way that makes it possible to reject it. In other
words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis wrong.
 Precision - Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a
sample. Precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the results on the basis of
the sample, to what really exists in the universe.
 Parsimony - Parsimony refers to simplicity in explaining the phenomena or
problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.

11. Types of Scientific Method (Exploratory,
Explanatory and Descriptive)
 Researchers conducting exploratory research are typically in the early
stages of examining their topics. A researcher may wish to do some
exploratory work to learn what method to use in collecting data, how
best to approach research subjects, or even what sorts of questions
are reasonable to ask.
 Research that answers “why” questions is referred to
as explanatory research. In this case, the researcher is trying to
identify the causes and effects of whatever phenomenon they are
studying.
 The purpose of research is to describe or define a particular
phenomenon, termed descriptive research.

12.  Exploratory research– conducted during the early stages of a
project, usually when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of
conducting a more extensive study
 Explanatory research– explains why particular phenomena work
in the way that they do, answers “why” questions
 Descriptive research– describes or defines a particular
phenomenon

14. Descriptive research
 The term ‘Descriptive’ is self-explanatory and the research that describes a
situation, an event and an institution is descriptive research.
 It describes the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of study.
 Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and
how.....
 Descriptive research is a quantitative research method.
 In simple words, descriptive research is all about describing the
phenomenon, observing and drawing conclusions from it.
 It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries with adequate interpretation.

15. Types of Research
 Basics or Fundamental or Pure Research
 Applied Research
 Action Research

16. Basics or Fundamental or Pure
Research
 Formation of theories
 In formal set up
 Vigorous and structured type of analysis
 Research carried out in laboratory situation with animals as subjects
 In education, discovery of such useful concepts as motivation,
reinforcement, concept formation and social environment learning
 Systematic process of deductive – inductive analysis
 To conduct research, need research expertise
 Research lead to development of theories

17. Applied Research
 Applied research are oriented towards discovery of truth and lead to solutions for
man’s problem.
 Solution to the immediate problem
 The purpose of Applied Research is to improve a product or a process by testing the
theoretical concepts in actual problem situations
 It uses sampling techniques and generalise the findings to the target populations
 Educational research – applied research – find immediate solution like teaching
processes and instructional materials
 B.F. Skinner – Theory of Operant Conditioning
 It improves the instructional skill in education

18. Action Research
 Focused on the immediate application and not on the
development of theory nor upon general application
 Its findings are evaluated in terms of local applicability, not
in terms of universe validity
 Growth in teacher qualities as objectivity, skill in research
process, habits of thinking, ability to work harmoniously
with others and professional spirit

19. Stages of Action Research
 Identification of a problem
 Defining the problem
 Listing of probable causes
 Formulation of an Action Hypothesis
 Testing of hypothesis
 Data to be collected
 Tools / procedures to be used
 Action programme
 Conclusion
 Follow up

20. Approaches to educational research
(Quantitative and Qualitative)

21. Quantitative research &
Qualitative research
 Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It
is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of
research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a
topic.
 Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to
understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of
research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are
not well understood.

24. Data collection methods
 Quantitative data collection methods
• Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample (online, in person, or
over the phone).
• Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
• Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.
 Qualitative data collection methods
• Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
• Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used
for further research.
• Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely
observe culture and behavior.
• Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.

27. The differences between quantitative
and qualitative research
Qualitative vs. quantitative research
Quantitative research Qualitative Research
Focuses on testing theories and hypotheses Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a
theory or hypothesis
Analyzed through math and statistical analysis Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and
interpreting
Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs and tables Mainly expressed in words
Requires many respondents Requires few respondents
Closed (multiple choice) questions
Data analysis methods include finding common
patterns in the data using tools such as R, SPSS,
Excel ,etc.,
Open-ended questions
Data analysis methods include thematic analysis,
discourse analysis and content analysis
Key terms: testing, measurement, objectivity,
replicability
Key terms: understanding, context, complexity,
subjectivity

28. Approach in research
 Historical approach (what was)
 Descriptive approach (what is)
 Experimental approach (what will be)
 Philosophical approach (rational understanding and
interpretation of facts)

29. Types of research based on ‘methods’
 Historical or Documentary
 Normative Survey or Descriptive
 Experimental
 Those adopted to complex-casual relationship studies. Under this we can have
 Casual – comparative method (Ex-post-Facto Research)
 Correlation Method (Statistical Method)
 Case Study Method (Clinical Method)
 Genetic Method (Developmental Studies)
 Longitudinal Approach
 Cross-sectional Approach

30. Designs in educational research
(Descriptive, Experimental and Historical)

31. Normative Survey Method
 Describes and interprets what exists at present
 Purpose of Normative Studies
 Of what exists by studying and analysing important aspects of the present
situation
 Of what we want by clarifying goals and objectives possibly through a
study of conditions existing elsewhere or what experts consider to be
desirable
 Of how to get there through discovering the possible means of achieving
the goals on the basis of the experiences of others or the opinions of
experts

32. Major steps of the Descriptive Method
 Formulating the objectives of the study
 Designing the methods of data collection
 Selecting the appropriate sample
 Collecting and checking the data
 Analysis of the data
 Drawing generalisations and interpreting them appropriately

33. Different kinds of Educational Surveys
 Educational Surveys
 Social Surveys
 Community Surveys
 Consumer Preferences
 Economic Surveys

34. Major Steps in Sample Survey
 Statement of objectives of
the study
 Definition of the population
to be sampled
 Determination of data to be
collected
 Selection on the tools of
data collection
 Choice of Sampling unit
 Selection of the sample using any one
of the appropriate techniques
 Random Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Incidental Sampling
 Purposive sampling, etc
 Organisation of final work
 Summary and an analysis of data
 Preparation of sample/survey report

35. Experimental Research
 Most scientifically sophisticated research method
 Observation under controlled conditions
 It studies observable changes that take place in order to establish a cause
and effect relationship
 It is the description of “What will be”, “What will occur” in the behaviour of
the subject (called dependent variable), when the experimenter deliberately
and systematically manipulates certain stimuli, treatments or environmental
conditions (called independent variables)

36. Nature of variables involved in
Experiments
 Independent variables - manipulates
 Dependent variables - change
 Organismic or Attribute variables – cannot be altered by the experimenter –
already determined (Age, Sex)
 Intervening variables – cannot be controlled or measured directly – effect on
outcome
 Extraneous variables – uncontrolled variables influence upon dependent variable

37. Types of factors to be controlled
 Those arising from the population
 Those stemming from the experimental procedures
 Those exerting influences from external sources

38. Methods of Controlling Extraneous Variables
 Removing the variable - Uniform
 Matching Cases – Identical
 Balancing Cases – Means and variances are equal
 Analysing of Covariance – Pre-test mean scores
 Randomisation – Pure chance selection

39. Major Steps in Experimental Method
 Identifying, defining and delimiting the problem
 Reviewing the related literature
 Formulating hypothesis and deducing their consequences
 Drawing up the Experimental Design
 Defining the Population and Sampling
 Carrying out the study
 Measuring the outcomes
 Analysing and Interpreting the outcomes
 Drawing up the conclusion
 Reporting the results

40. Research Design
 It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure
 Blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
 Outline of the research
 A clear statement of the problem
 Procedures and Techniques to be used for data collection
 Sample to be studied
 Method to be used for the analysis of the data

41. RD attempts to answer the following
 What is the study about? (statement of the problem)
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 What are the sources from which the required data to be collected?
 What will be the sample design? (Sampling techniques and sample size)
 How will the data be collected ? (Tools and techniques to be used)
 How will the data be analysed ? (proposed statistical techniques to be used)

42. Important concepts relating to
research design
 Variable - A concept which can take on different quantitative values
 Continuous variable – Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values
even in decimal points (Age)
 Discrete variable – Expressed in integer values (No. of children)
 Dependent variable – If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of other
variable (Height)
 Independent variable – Variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable (Age)
 Extraneous variable – Independent variables that are not relate to the purpose of
study, but may affect the dependent variable (Intelligence)
 Experimental Error – Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of
extraneous variables

43.  Control – minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable
 Confounded relationship – when the dependent variable is not free from the influence
of extraneous variable
 Research hypothesis – when a predication or a hypothesised relationship is to be
tested by scientific methods
 Hypothesis-testing research – when the purpose is to be test a research hypothesis
 Experimental hypothesis-testing research – research in which the independent variable
is manipulated
 Non-experimental hypothesis-testing research – research in which an independent
variable is not manipulated

44.  Control group – in an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual
conditions
 Experimental group – when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition
 Treatments - the different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put
 Experiments – the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem
 Absolute experiment – if we want to determine the impact of the fertilizer on the yield of a crop
 Comparative experiment – if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to
the impact of some other fertilizer
 Experimental units – the pre-determined plots or the blocks where the different treatments are
used

45. Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
 Principle of Replication
 Principle of Randomisation
 Principle of Local Control

46. Principle of Replication
 Experiment should be repeated more than once, so as to increase the
accuracy of the experiment
 Example
 8 equal parts
 4 parts one variety
 4 parts other variety
 Result will be more reliable

47. Principle of Randomisation
 Provides for protection, when we conduct an experiment, against
the effects of extraneous factors
 Example
 8 – 10 equal parts
 Variety of rice to be grown indifferent parts of the field on the basis
of random sampling techniques

48. Principle of Local Control
 The extraneous variable is allowed to vary deliberately over a wide
range so that the variability it causes could be measured experimentally
and eliminated from the experimental error by performing two way
analysis of variance.
 Example
 Divide homogenous parts – blocks
 Each block – divided into parts equal to number of treatments
 Treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block (blocking)

49. Validity of Research Designs
Internal Validity
 Maturation
 History
 Testing
 Measurement Error
 Statistical Regression
 Selection bias
 Experimental Mortality
 Interaction Effects
External Validity
 Prior Treatment
 Artificiality of experimental setting

50. Experimental Designs
 Purpose of the study
 Variables involved and their nature
 Controls required
Types
 Pure
 Crude
 Quasi-experiments

52. Difference between Research Design
and Experimental Design
 For all types of research, a research design is a must, to complete
the investigation efficiently and economically
 Experimental design is applicable only for experimental studies. It
gives details of the procedures to be followed in the conduct of the
experiment
 It could be inferred that research design is more comprehensive in
its nature and applicability as compared to experimental design
 Experimental design is a part of research design and its applicable
only in the case of experimental research studies

53. Historical Research
 Record of past events and movements
 It is a complete, comprehensive, accurate and meaningful record of
man’s achievement in the past
 Study of the past is important as the ‘present’ is shaped by the ‘past’
 Present and the past will probably influence the future also
 Mostly qualitative rather than quantitative by the very nature of the
subject matter taken up for research

54. Purpose of Historical Research
 To get at the solution for the present problems in
the light of the past
 To provide greater appreciation of a particular
culture and heritage
 Knowledge of the past can assist the policy makers,
in not making the past mistakes

55. Major steps in Historical Research
 Identification and delimitation of the problem
 Formulation of Hypotheses
 Collection of data through Primary and Secondary Sources
 Verification and Validation of the data through internal and external
criticism
 Tests the hypothesis as consistent or inconsistent with the evidence
 Writing of the historical account, presenting the facts in a readable form
involving problems of organisation, composition, exposition and
interpretation

56. Primary and Secondary Sources of Data
 Primary Sources – original documents or remains
a) Consciously Transmitted information – oral or written
testimony
b) Unconscious Testimony – remains or relics
 Secondary Sources – text books, encyclopaedias

57. Evaluation of Historical Data
(Historical Criticism)
External Criticism – authenticity or
genuineness of the data
Internal Criticism – accuracy or worth of the
historical data

58. Historical Report Writing
 Documentation
 Selection and
 Organisation – organised in a chronological or functional
order
 Style of historical composition must be dignified and
objective, free from fads and frills, but not dull or
uninteresting

59. Formulation of research problem
 A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same
 Selection of the problem
 Because of his interest
 As a basis for further study
 To improve educational conditions
 To further personal ambitions

60. Sources for research problem
 Personal Experience
 Study of related literature
 Educational innovations
 Professional contacts

61. Criteria for the selection of a problem
 Interesting?
 New one?
 Significant?
 Feasible?
 Data Accessible?
 Am I Competent?
 Have enough Financial resources?
 Enough courage?
 Enough time?
 Personal interest
 Personal Capabilities
 Values of the topic
 Availability of data

62. Formulating and stating the problem
 Posing question/questions
 Declarative statement/statements

63. Delimitation and Limitation of a study
 Delimitation
 Boundaries of the project
 Fixed by the researcher
 Deliberate attempt on the part of the researcher in planning the research study
 It makes the problem specific and clear-cut
 Limitation
 Short comings that crept in the investigation inspite of the best efforts of the
researcher to avoid them
 Status of the end results

64. Research Proposal
 Objectives of the study
 The sample
 Procedure
 Data analysis
 Time schedule
 Bibliography
 Emergence of the problem
 Statement of the problem
 Review of the related literature
 Statement of the hypotheses with
their rational
 Definition of terms
 Assumptions and Limitations
 Significance of the study