Research in education

Research in education

• 1.
  UGC NET EDUCATION PaperII Research inEducation M. VIJAYALAKSHMI M.SC., M.PHIL. (LIFE SCIENCES), M.ED., M.PHIL. (EDUCATION), NET (EDUCATION), PGDBI ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (FORMER), SRI RAMAKRISHNA MISSION VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (AUTONOMOUS), COIMBATORE – 641020.
• 2.
  Unit 6: Researchin Education a) Meaning and Scope of Educational Research, Meaning and steps of Scientific Method, Characteristics of Scientific Method (Replicability, Precision, Falsifiability and Parsimony), Types of Scientific Method (Exploratory, Explanatory and Descriptive), Aims of research as a scientific activity: Problem- solving, Theory Building and Prediction, Types of research (Fundamental, Applied and Action), Approaches to educational research (Quantitative and Qualitative), Designs in educational research (Descriptive, Experimental and Historical)
• 3.
  Meaning of research The term research comprises of two words, namely ‘re’ and ‘search’. Generally, ‘re’ means again and ‘search’ means to find out.  The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research
• 4.
  Objectives of research Gain familiarity with a new phenomenon or develop new insight into a phenomenon. (Exploratory or Formulative research)  To portray actually the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (Descriptive research)  To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with it is associated with something else. (Diagnostic research)  To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (Hypothesis-testing studies or Experimental Studies)
• 5.
  Characteristics of Research Research is Systematic  Research is Logical  Research is Empirical  Research is Deductive (Particular to general)  Research is Replicable and Transmittable
• 6.
  Scope of EducationalResearch  New branch  Problems – innumerable  Variously classified  Classification of fields  Educational Psychology  Philosophy of Education  Sociology of Education  Economics of Education  Comparative Education  Educational Administration  Educational Evaluation  Educational Technology  Teacher Education and Teacher Behaviour  Curriculum Construction and Text books  Guidance and Counselling
• 7.
  Scientific Research  Scientificresearch focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions therefrom.  Thus, scientific research is not based on hunches, experience, and intuition (though these may play a part in final decision making), but a purposive and rigorous.
• 8.
  Research and ScientificThinking  Authority –Advice from ancestors  Custom and Tradition  Personal Experience  Reasoning (Inductive – General to Specific; Deductive – Specific to General)  Scientific Enquiry
• 9.
  Scientific Method  Inductive– From observation to hypotheses  Deductive – from hypotheses to logical implication of the hypotheses  Steps –  Identification and definition of the problem  Formulation of a hypothesis  Implications of hypothesis through deductive reasoning  Collection and analysis of evidence  Verification, rejection or modification of hypothesis
• 10.
  Characteristics of ScientificMethod  Replicability - The results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances. If the results are repeated, we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our research.  Falsifiability - A good theory or hypothesis also must be Falsifiable, which means that it must be stated in a way that makes it possible to reject it. In other words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis wrong.  Precision - Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample. Precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe.  Parsimony - Parsimony refers to simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.
• 11.
  Types of ScientificMethod (Exploratory, Explanatory and Descriptive)  Researchers conducting exploratory research are typically in the early stages of examining their topics. A researcher may wish to do some exploratory work to learn what method to use in collecting data, how best to approach research subjects, or even what sorts of questions are reasonable to ask.  Research that answers “why” questions is referred to as explanatory research. In this case, the researcher is trying to identify the causes and effects of whatever phenomenon they are studying.  The purpose of research is to describe or define a particular phenomenon, termed descriptive research.
• 12.
   Exploratory research–conducted during the early stages of a project, usually when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of conducting a more extensive study  Explanatory research– explains why particular phenomena work in the way that they do, answers “why” questions  Descriptive research– describes or defines a particular phenomenon
• 14.
  Descriptive research  Theterm ‘Descriptive’ is self-explanatory and the research that describes a situation, an event and an institution is descriptive research.  It describes the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of study.  Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how.....  Descriptive research is a quantitative research method.  In simple words, descriptive research is all about describing the phenomenon, observing and drawing conclusions from it.  It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries with adequate interpretation.
• 15.
  Types of Research Basics or Fundamental or Pure Research  Applied Research  Action Research
• 16.
  Basics or Fundamentalor Pure Research  Formation of theories  In formal set up  Vigorous and structured type of analysis  Research carried out in laboratory situation with animals as subjects  In education, discovery of such useful concepts as motivation, reinforcement, concept formation and social environment learning  Systematic process of deductive – inductive analysis  To conduct research, need research expertise  Research lead to development of theories
• 17.
  Applied Research  Appliedresearch are oriented towards discovery of truth and lead to solutions for man’s problem.  Solution to the immediate problem  The purpose of Applied Research is to improve a product or a process by testing the theoretical concepts in actual problem situations  It uses sampling techniques and generalise the findings to the target populations  Educational research – applied research – find immediate solution like teaching processes and instructional materials  B.F. Skinner – Theory of Operant Conditioning  It improves the instructional skill in education
• 18.
  Action Research  Focusedon the immediate application and not on the development of theory nor upon general application  Its findings are evaluated in terms of local applicability, not in terms of universe validity  Growth in teacher qualities as objectivity, skill in research process, habits of thinking, ability to work harmoniously with others and professional spirit
• 19.
  Stages of ActionResearch  Identification of a problem  Defining the problem  Listing of probable causes  Formulation of an Action Hypothesis  Testing of hypothesis  Data to be collected  Tools / procedures to be used  Action programme  Conclusion  Follow up
• 20.
  Approaches to educationalresearch (Quantitative and Qualitative)
• 21.
  Quantitative research & Qualitativeresearch  Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.  Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.
• 24.
  Data collection methods Quantitative data collection methods • Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone). • Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships. • Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.  Qualitative data collection methods • Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents. • Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further research. • Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior. • Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.
• 27.
  The differences betweenquantitative and qualitative research Qualitative vs. quantitative research Quantitative research Qualitative Research Focuses on testing theories and hypotheses Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a theory or hypothesis Analyzed through math and statistical analysis Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and interpreting Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs and tables Mainly expressed in words Requires many respondents Requires few respondents Closed (multiple choice) questions Data analysis methods include finding common patterns in the data using tools such as R, SPSS, Excel ,etc., Open-ended questions Data analysis methods include thematic analysis, discourse analysis and content analysis Key terms: testing, measurement, objectivity, replicability Key terms: understanding, context, complexity, subjectivity
• 28.
  Approach in research Historical approach (what was)  Descriptive approach (what is)  Experimental approach (what will be)  Philosophical approach (rational understanding and interpretation of facts)
• 29.
  Types of researchbased on ‘methods’  Historical or Documentary  Normative Survey or Descriptive  Experimental  Those adopted to complex-casual relationship studies. Under this we can have  Casual – comparative method (Ex-post-Facto Research)  Correlation Method (Statistical Method)  Case Study Method (Clinical Method)  Genetic Method (Developmental Studies)  Longitudinal Approach  Cross-sectional Approach
• 30.
  Designs in educationalresearch (Descriptive, Experimental and Historical)
• 31.
  Normative Survey Method Describes and interprets what exists at present  Purpose of Normative Studies  Of what exists by studying and analysing important aspects of the present situation  Of what we want by clarifying goals and objectives possibly through a study of conditions existing elsewhere or what experts consider to be desirable  Of how to get there through discovering the possible means of achieving the goals on the basis of the experiences of others or the opinions of experts
• 32.
  Major steps ofthe Descriptive Method  Formulating the objectives of the study  Designing the methods of data collection  Selecting the appropriate sample  Collecting and checking the data  Analysis of the data  Drawing generalisations and interpreting them appropriately
• 33.
  Different kinds ofEducational Surveys  Educational Surveys  Social Surveys  Community Surveys  Consumer Preferences  Economic Surveys
• 34.
  Major Steps inSample Survey  Statement of objectives of the study  Definition of the population to be sampled  Determination of data to be collected  Selection on the tools of data collection  Choice of Sampling unit  Selection of the sample using any one of the appropriate techniques  Random Sampling  Stratified Sampling  Incidental Sampling  Purposive sampling, etc  Organisation of final work  Summary and an analysis of data  Preparation of sample/survey report
• 35.
  Experimental Research  Mostscientifically sophisticated research method  Observation under controlled conditions  It studies observable changes that take place in order to establish a cause and effect relationship  It is the description of “What will be”, “What will occur” in the behaviour of the subject (called dependent variable), when the experimenter deliberately and systematically manipulates certain stimuli, treatments or environmental conditions (called independent variables)
• 36.
  Nature of variablesinvolved in Experiments  Independent variables - manipulates  Dependent variables - change  Organismic or Attribute variables – cannot be altered by the experimenter – already determined (Age, Sex)  Intervening variables – cannot be controlled or measured directly – effect on outcome  Extraneous variables – uncontrolled variables influence upon dependent variable
• 37.
  Types of factorsto be controlled  Those arising from the population  Those stemming from the experimental procedures  Those exerting influences from external sources
• 38.
  Methods of ControllingExtraneous Variables  Removing the variable - Uniform  Matching Cases – Identical  Balancing Cases – Means and variances are equal  Analysing of Covariance – Pre-test mean scores  Randomisation – Pure chance selection
• 39.
  Major Steps inExperimental Method  Identifying, defining and delimiting the problem  Reviewing the related literature  Formulating hypothesis and deducing their consequences  Drawing up the Experimental Design  Defining the Population and Sampling  Carrying out the study  Measuring the outcomes  Analysing and Interpreting the outcomes  Drawing up the conclusion  Reporting the results
• 40.
  Research Design  Itis the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure  Blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data  Outline of the research  A clear statement of the problem  Procedures and Techniques to be used for data collection  Sample to be studied  Method to be used for the analysis of the data
• 41.
  RD attempts toanswer the following  What is the study about? (statement of the problem)  Where will the study be carried out?  What type of data is required?  What are the sources from which the required data to be collected?  What will be the sample design? (Sampling techniques and sample size)  How will the data be collected ? (Tools and techniques to be used)  How will the data be analysed ? (proposed statistical techniques to be used)
• 42.
  Important concepts relatingto research design  Variable - A concept which can take on different quantitative values  Continuous variable – Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points (Age)  Discrete variable – Expressed in integer values (No. of children)  Dependent variable – If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of other variable (Height)  Independent variable – Variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable (Age)  Extraneous variable – Independent variables that are not relate to the purpose of study, but may affect the dependent variable (Intelligence)  Experimental Error – Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variables
• 43.
   Control –minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable  Confounded relationship – when the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable  Research hypothesis – when a predication or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific methods  Hypothesis-testing research – when the purpose is to be test a research hypothesis  Experimental hypothesis-testing research – research in which the independent variable is manipulated  Non-experimental hypothesis-testing research – research in which an independent variable is not manipulated
• 44.
   Control group– in an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions  Experimental group – when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition  Treatments - the different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put  Experiments – the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem  Absolute experiment – if we want to determine the impact of the fertilizer on the yield of a crop  Comparative experiment – if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer  Experimental units – the pre-determined plots or the blocks where the different treatments are used
• 45.
  Basic Principles ofExperimental Designs  Principle of Replication  Principle of Randomisation  Principle of Local Control
• 46.
  Principle of Replication Experiment should be repeated more than once, so as to increase the accuracy of the experiment  Example  8 equal parts  4 parts one variety  4 parts other variety  Result will be more reliable
• 47.
  Principle of Randomisation Provides for protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effects of extraneous factors  Example  8 – 10 equal parts  Variety of rice to be grown indifferent parts of the field on the basis of random sampling techniques
• 48.
  Principle of LocalControl  The extraneous variable is allowed to vary deliberately over a wide range so that the variability it causes could be measured experimentally and eliminated from the experimental error by performing two way analysis of variance.  Example  Divide homogenous parts – blocks  Each block – divided into parts equal to number of treatments  Treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block (blocking)
• 49.
  Validity of ResearchDesigns Internal Validity  Maturation  History  Testing  Measurement Error  Statistical Regression  Selection bias  Experimental Mortality  Interaction Effects External Validity  Prior Treatment  Artificiality of experimental setting
• 50.
  Experimental Designs  Purposeof the study  Variables involved and their nature  Controls required Types  Pure  Crude  Quasi-experiments
• 52.
  Difference between ResearchDesign and Experimental Design  For all types of research, a research design is a must, to complete the investigation efficiently and economically  Experimental design is applicable only for experimental studies. It gives details of the procedures to be followed in the conduct of the experiment  It could be inferred that research design is more comprehensive in its nature and applicability as compared to experimental design  Experimental design is a part of research design and its applicable only in the case of experimental research studies
• 53.
  Historical Research  Recordof past events and movements  It is a complete, comprehensive, accurate and meaningful record of man’s achievement in the past  Study of the past is important as the ‘present’ is shaped by the ‘past’  Present and the past will probably influence the future also  Mostly qualitative rather than quantitative by the very nature of the subject matter taken up for research
• 54.
  Purpose of HistoricalResearch  To get at the solution for the present problems in the light of the past  To provide greater appreciation of a particular culture and heritage  Knowledge of the past can assist the policy makers, in not making the past mistakes
• 55.
  Major steps inHistorical Research  Identification and delimitation of the problem  Formulation of Hypotheses  Collection of data through Primary and Secondary Sources  Verification and Validation of the data through internal and external criticism  Tests the hypothesis as consistent or inconsistent with the evidence  Writing of the historical account, presenting the facts in a readable form involving problems of organisation, composition, exposition and interpretation
• 56.
  Primary and SecondarySources of Data  Primary Sources – original documents or remains a) Consciously Transmitted information – oral or written testimony b) Unconscious Testimony – remains or relics  Secondary Sources – text books, encyclopaedias
• 57.
  Evaluation of HistoricalData (Historical Criticism) External Criticism – authenticity or genuineness of the data Internal Criticism – accuracy or worth of the historical data
• 58.
  Historical Report Writing Documentation  Selection and  Organisation – organised in a chronological or functional order  Style of historical composition must be dignified and objective, free from fads and frills, but not dull or uninteresting
• 59.
  Formulation of researchproblem  A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same  Selection of the problem  Because of his interest  As a basis for further study  To improve educational conditions  To further personal ambitions
• 60.
  Sources for researchproblem  Personal Experience  Study of related literature  Educational innovations  Professional contacts
• 61.
  Criteria for theselection of a problem  Interesting?  New one?  Significant?  Feasible?  Data Accessible?  Am I Competent?  Have enough Financial resources?  Enough courage?  Enough time?  Personal interest  Personal Capabilities  Values of the topic  Availability of data
• 62.
  Formulating and statingthe problem  Posing question/questions  Declarative statement/statements
• 63.
  Delimitation and Limitationof a study  Delimitation  Boundaries of the project  Fixed by the researcher  Deliberate attempt on the part of the researcher in planning the research study  It makes the problem specific and clear-cut  Limitation  Short comings that crept in the investigation inspite of the best efforts of the researcher to avoid them  Status of the end results
• 64.
  Research Proposal  Objectivesof the study  The sample  Procedure  Data analysis  Time schedule  Bibliography  Emergence of the problem  Statement of the problem  Review of the related literature  Statement of the hypotheses with their rational  Definition of terms  Assumptions and Limitations  Significance of the study