Qualitative research, types, data collection and analysis

Qualitative research, types, data collection and analysis

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  Qualitative Research, Types, Data Collectionand Analysis M. Vijayalakshmi M.Sc., M.Phil. (Life Sciences), M.Ed., M.Phil. (Education), NET (Education), PGDBI Assistant Professor (Former), Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya College of Education (Autonomous), Coimbatore – 641020.
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  Qualitative Research  Collection,analysis and interpretation of comprehensive narrative and visual (non numerical) data to gain insights into a particular phenomenon of interest.
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  QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVERESEARCH Type of data collected Numerical data Non numerical narrative and visual data Research problem Hypothesis and research procedures stated before beginning the study Research problems and methods evolve as understanding of topic deepens Manipulation of context Yes No Sample size Larger Smaller Research procedures Statistical procedures Categorizing & organizing data into patterns to produce a descriptive, narrative synthesis Participant interaction Little Extensive Underlying belief We live in a stable & predictable world that we can measure, understand and generalize about Meaning is situated in a particular perspective/context that is different for people & groups; therefore the world has many meanings.
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  Qualitative research approaches ApproachWhat does it involve? Grounded theory Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories inductively. Ethnography Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures. Action research Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change. Phenomenological research Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived experiences. Narrative research Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences.
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  Types of QualitativeResearch In-depth interview Focus Groups Narrative Phenomenology Ethnography Case Study Content Analysis Grounded Theory Record Keeping
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  Grounded Theory  Groundedtheory is a systematic procedure of data analysis, typically associated with qualitative research, that allows researchers to develop a theory that explains a specific phenomenon.  Grounded theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss and is used to conceptualize phenomenon using research  The unit of analysis in grounded theory is a specific phenomenon or incident, not individual behaviors.
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  Grounded theory commonlyuses the following data collection methods:  Interviewing participants with open-ended questions.  Participant Observation (fieldwork) and/or focus groups.  Study of Artifacts and Texts
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  Narrative research  Encompassthe study of the experiences of a single individual embracing stories of the life and exploring the learned significance of those individual experiences.  Focus on the lives of individuals as told through their own stories.  Means by which we systematically gather, analyse, and represent people’s stories as told by them.
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  Case study  Unlikegrounded theory, the case study model provides an in-depth look at one test subject.  The subject can be a person, family, organization, school etc.
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  Case studies areto be used when  The researcher wants to focus on how and why, the behavior is to be observed, not manipulated, to further understand a given phenomenon  Multiple methods can be used to gather data, including interviews, observation, and historical documentation.
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  Steps in Casestudy method  Identification of the problem  Diagnosis of the problem  Collection and Analysis of the data  Suggesting Remedial Measures  Follow up
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  Characteristics of aGood Case-study  Completeness of data  Validity of data  Continuity  Confidential recording  Scientific synthesis
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  Merits  To studyrare and useful case of human behaviour  Some of the case study data cannot be obtained by any other technique  In education, it may be highly useful in Guidance and Counselling Limitations  Human behaviour cannot be explained without thoroughly examining environmental factors in relation to the individual  Elements of Subjectivity  Errors of perception, faulty memory, unconscious bias, etc  Expensive
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  Refer following linkfor further details  https://www.slideshare.net/hinanwr/case-study-final-14970834
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  Ethnographic Research  Studyof cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural settings.  To describe, analyze and interpret a culture’s characteristics.  Developed in the 19th and 20th centuries and used by anthropologists to explore primitive cultures different from their own; it originated from Anthropology.
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  Describe and interpretculture- the set of attitudes, values, concepts, beliefs and practices shared by members of a group.
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   The primarydata collection method is through participant observation over an extended period of time.  Field notes, interview and examination of artifacts are also used  Studies on tribes, marginalized groups, women, culture of a school, work culture of a particular institution etc.
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  Steps of ConductingEthnographic Research  Identify research question  Determine location(s) for research  Formulate presentation method  Acquire permissions and access  Observe and participate  Interview  Collect archival data  Code and analyse data
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  Four main elementsof Ethnographic Research  Phenomenology  Holison  Non- Judgemental orientation  Contextualisation
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  Approaches  Linguistic Approach Situational Approach Techniques (Methods)  Experience  Enquiry  Examination
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  Key notes  Ethnographicresearch has an interest in culture and cultural meanings with an emphasis on the ‘emic’ or ‘the insider’ view.  Ethnographies are based on fieldwork among the people whose culture is under study.  Ethnography focuses on interpretation, understanding and representation.  Methodological principles such as naturalism, understanding and induction draw on different philosophical backgrounds and, therefore, produce different types of ethnography.  Collect data from different perspectives and different sources, write field notes that are descriptive and rich in detail, and represent participants in their own terms by using quotations and short stories.  Write rich description followed by analysis and interpretation, and situate yourself in your writing. The narrative form of writing works well.
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  Strength and weaknesses Pros of Ethnography  It helps people know more about other cultures  It helps businesses learn more about their target market  It helps increase scientists’ understanding of human behaviour  It can easily evolve and discover new things  Cons of Ethnography  It can be difficult to choose a representative sample  It takes a lot of time  It depends on the ethnographer’s relationship with his subjects  It depends on people’s openness and honesty  It can lead to cultural bias
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  Phenomenology  To identifyphenomena and focus on subjective experiences and understanding the structure of those lived experiences.  To describe how human beings experience a certain phenomenon.  It was founded in the early 20thcentury by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger and originated from philosophy.
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   Set asidebiases and preconceived assumptions about human experiences, feelings, and responses to a particular situation.  To explore the perceptions, perspectives, understandings, and feelings of those people who have actually experienced or lived the phenomenon or situation of interest.  The direct investigation and description of phenomena as consciously experienced by people living those experiences.
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   The primarydata collection method is through in-depth interviews.  Participant observation
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  Nature of qualitativedata  ‘Detailed descriptions’ of situations, events, people, interactions, observed behaviours, still or moving images and artifacts.  ‘Direct quotations’ from people about their attitudes, beliefs and thoughts;  ‘Excerpts’ or ‘entire passages’ from documents, correspondence records and case histories.  Verbal data gathered through open ended questionnaires, observations, and interviews are also mostly qualitative in nature.
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   All thesedata are not usually immediately accessible for analysis, but require some processing.  Raw field notes needs to be corrected, edited, typed; tape recordings need to be transcribed and corrected; video filming needs to be technically edited, and so on.
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  Process of Observation Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or data. Qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.  Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.
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  Qualitative research datacollection methods  Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods. These are some of the most common qualitative methods: • Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes. • Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations. • Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people. • Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions. • Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
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  Qualitative Data Analysis Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.  Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps: 1. Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes. 2. Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
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  3. Develop adata coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data. 4. Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary. 5. Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.  There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.
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  Data Analysis  Organisingthe data  Transcribe data  Interim Analysis  Segmenting  Memoing  Coding  Categorizing  Making connections / Establishing relations  Interpreting and reporting
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  Qualitative Data Analysis ApproachWhen to use Example Content Analysis To describe and categorize common words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative data. A market researcher could perform content analysis to find out what kind of language is used in descriptions of therapeutic apps. Thematic Analysis To identify and interpret patterns and themes in qualitative data. A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel blogs to explore how tourism shapes self- identity. Textual Analysis To examine the content, structure, and design of texts. A media researcher could use textual analysis to understand how news coverage of celebrities has changed in the past decade. Discourse Analysis To study communication and how language is used to achieve effects in specific contexts. A political scientist could use discourse analysis to study how politicians generate trust in election campaigns.
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  Advantages of QualitativeResearch  Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for: • Flexibility  The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand. • Natural settings  Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways. • Meaningful insights  Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products. • Generation of new ideas  Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.
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  Disadvantages of QualitativeResearch  Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from: • Unreliability - The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data. • Subjectivity - Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated. The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly. • Limited generalizability - Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to arise generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population.  Labor-intensive - Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.
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  Qualitative data analysis DataReduction Data Display, and Drawing Conclusion & Verification
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  Data Reduction Data reductionis a form of analysis that sharpens, sorts, focuses, discards, and organizes data in such a way that meaningful conclusions can be drawn and verified.
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  Data display  Adisplay is an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits conclusion drawing and action.  Looking at display helps us to understand what is happening and to do something – either analyze further or take action – based on that understanding.
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  Designing a display– deciding on the rows and columns of a matrix for qualitative data and deciding which data, in which form, should be entered in the cells – are analytic activities.
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  Drawing conclusion andverification  From the start of data collection, the researcher in the field makes notes about the activities and their explanations.  Subsequently these notes reveal some possible configurations from where tentative conclusions are drawn and they are verified and cross checked, while in the field, to check about the credibility of those conclusions.
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  Coding  Setting upproper codes for the collected data takes you a step ahead.  Coding is one of the best ways to compress a huge amount of information collected.  Coding of qualitative data simply means categorizing and assigning properties and patterns to the collected data.
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  Coding should beline by line. Open coding: read through data several times, creating summaries for the data using preliminary labels. Axial coding is used to create conceptual families from the summaries. Followed by selective coding which turns the families into a formal framework with a variable that includes all of the collected data.
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  Types of Coding Open coding: Basically, you read through your data several times and then start to create tentative labels for chunks of data that summarize what you see happening (not based on existing theory – just based on the meaning that emerges from the data).  Record examples of participants’ words and establish properties of each code.
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   Axial coding:Axial coding consists of identifying relationships among the open codes. What are the connections among the codes?  Selective coding: Figure out the core variable that includes all of the data. Then reread the transcripts and selectively code any data that relates to the core variable you identified.
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  Categorisation  It isa process of identifying patterns in the data; recurring ideas, themes, perspectives and descriptions that depict the social world you are studying.  Example: studying social skills of students involved in collaborative learning
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  Classification  Classification isa way of knowing the attributes of a phenomenon and be able to group them. A key element of many social science endeavours is the systematic classification of different phenomena or items in a domain area.
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  Basic requirements forclassification  Identify, generate and develop categories  Judge the categories for Internal Homogeneity and External Heterogeneity IH - the extent to which the data that belong in a certain category hold together in a meaningful way. EH - the extent to which differences among categories are bold and clear
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   Arrange orsort out the data as per the developed categories  There might be possibility of some data remaining out of the categories  Check, recheck and verify the meaningfulness and accuracy of the categories
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  Content analysis  Contentanalysis is concerned with the classification, organization and comparison of content of the document or communication.  Documentary data (textual data, interview transcripts, excerpts from people’s speech, case histories, field notes or diary, biographies and observation records)
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  TECHNIQUES OF QUALITATIVECONTENT ANALYSIS (i) Summarizing Content Analysis (ii) Explicative Content Analysis, and (iii)Structuring Content Analysis
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  Summarizing  In thisthe material is paraphrased, which means that the less relevant passages and paraphrases with the same meanings are skipped (first reduction) and similar paraphrases are bundled and summarized (second reduction).
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  Explicative  It clarifiesambiguous or contradictory passages by involving context material in the analysis. Definitions taken from dictionaries or based on grammar are used or formulated.
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  Structuring content analysis Looks for types or formal structures in the material.  The analyst looks for a single salient feature that describes more exactly the internal structure.
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  For doing sucha type of content analysis, no general rule can be defined. It depends on the respective research question and the analytical power of the analyst.
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  Triangulation “Triangulation or theuse of multiple methods, is a plan of action that will raise sociologists above the personalistic biases that stem from single methodologies” (Denzin, 1978)
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  Types of Triangulation Denzin(1978) has identified four basic types of triangulation: Data Triangulation – the use of a variety of data sources in a study; Investigator Triangulation – the use of several different researchers;
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  Cont.. Theory Triangulation -the use of multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of data; and Methodological Triangulation – the use of multiple methods to study a single problem.
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  Types of Triangulation
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  Methodological triangulation  Triangulationof methods will most of the revolve around comparing data collected through some kind of qualitative methods with data collected through some kind of quantitative methods.
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  Data triangulation This allowsa researcher to cross check the consistency of information derived at different times and by different means within qualitative methods.
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   Four sub-typesin this category – • Time (checking the consistency of what people say about the same thing over time) • Space (comparing what people say in public with what they say in private) • Means (comparing observational data with interview data or validating information obtained through interviews by checking with other written evidence) • Person (comparing the perspectives of people from different points of view – staff views, client views etc)
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  Investigator/Analyst triangulation Using multipleobservers or analysts. The rationale is to reduce bias and increase reliability – that is the extent to which a research tool produces the same results irrespective of when, where or by whom it is conducted.
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  Theory Triangulation  Theorytriangulation is the use of multiple theories or hypotheses when examining a situation or phenomenon. The idea is to look at a situation/phenomenon from different perspectives, through different lenses, with different questions in mind.
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  References  An introductionto qualitative research. Retrieved July 20, 2020 from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/  QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: DEFINITION, TYPES, METHODS AND EXAMPLES. Retrieved July 20, 2020 from https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-research-methods/  Internet Sources – Images and Contents