Gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillary blood occurs by diffusion, as will be discussed in the next chapter. Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs passively, according to their concentration differences across the alveolar-capillary barrier. These concentration differences must be maintained by ventilation of the alveoli and perfusion of the pulmonary capillaries.
Alveolar ventilation brings oxygen into the lung and removes carbon dioxide from it. Similarly, the mixed venous blood brings carbon dioxide into the lung and takes up alveolar oxygen. The alveolar Image not available. and Image not available. are thus determined by the relationship between alveolar ventilation and pulmonary capillary perfusion. Alterations in the ratio of ventilation to perfusion, called the Image not available., will result in changes in the alveolar Image not available. and Image not available., as well as in gas delivery to or removal from the lung.
Alveolar ventilation is normally about 4 to 6 L/min and pulmonary blood flow (which is equal to cardiac output) has a similar range, and so the Image not available. for the whole lung is in the range of 0.8 to 1.2. Image not available. However, ventilation and perfusion must be matched on the alveolar-capillary level, and the Image not available. for the whole lung is really of interest only as an approximation of the situation in all the alveolar-capillary units of the lung. For instance, suppose that all 5 L/min of the cardiac output went to the left lung and all 5 L/min of alveolar ventilation went to the right lung. The whole lung Image not available. would be 1.0, but there would be no gas exchange because there could be no gas diffusion between the ventilated alveoli and the perfused pulmonary capillaries.
Oxygen is delivered to the alveolus by alveolar ventilation, is removed from the alveolus as it diffuses into the pulmonary capillary blood, and is carried away by blood flow. Similarly, carbon dioxide is delivered to the alveolus in the mixed venous blood and diffuses into the alveolus in the pulmonary capillary. The carbon dioxide is removed from the alveolus by alveolar ventilation. As will be discussed in Chapter 6, at resting cardiac outputs the diffusion of both oxygen and carbon dioxide is normally limited by pulmonary perfusion. Thus, the alveolar partial pressures of both oxygen and carbon dioxide are determined by the Image not available. If the Image not available. in an alveolar-capillary unit increases, the delivery of oxygen relative to its removal will increase, as will the removal ...
Gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillary blood occurs by diffusion, as will be discussed in the next chapter. Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs passively, according to their concentration differences across the alveolar-capillary barrier. These concentration differences must be maintained by ventilation of the alveoli and perfusion of the pulmonary capillaries.
Alveolar ventilation brings oxygen into the lung and removes carbon dioxide from it. Similarly, the mixed venous blood brings carbon dioxide into the lung and takes up alveolar oxygen. The alveolar Image not available. and Image not available. are thus determined by the relationship between alveolar ventilation and pulmonary capillary perfusion. Alterations in the ratio of ventilation to perfusion, called the Image not available., will result in changes in the alveolar Image not available. and Image not available., as well as in gas delivery to or removal from the lung.
Alveolar ventilation is normally about 4 to 6 L/min and pulmonary blood flow (which is equal to cardiac output) has a similar range, and so the Image not available. for the whole lung is in the range of 0.8 to 1.2. Image not available. However, ventilation and perfusion must be matched on the alveolar-capillary level, and the Image not available. for the whole lung is really of interest only as an approximation of the situation in all the alveolar-capillary units of the lung. For instance, suppose that all 5 L/min of the cardiac output went to the left lung and all 5 L/min of alveolar ventilation went to the right lung. The whole lung Image not available. would be 1.0, but there would be no gas exchange because there could be no gas diffusion between the ventilated alveoli and the perfused pulmonary capillaries.
Oxygen is delivered to the alveolus by alveolar ventilation, is removed from the alveolus as it diffuses into the pulmonary capillary blood, and is carried away by blood flow. Similarly, carbon dioxide is delivered to the alveolus in the mixed venous blood and diffuses into the alveolus in the pulmonary capillary. The carbon dioxide is removed from the alveolus by alveolar ventilation. As will be discussed in Chapter 6, at resting cardiac outputs the diffusion of both oxygen and carbon dioxide is normally limited by pulmonary perfusion. Thus, the alveolar partial pressures of both oxygen and carbon dioxide are determined by the Image not available. If the Image not available. in an alveolar-capillary unit increases, the delivery of oxygen relative to its removal will increase, as will the removal ...
This presentation describes the indications, contraindications, methods of performing spirometry. It explains the interpretation of spirometry with examples.
What are the pulmonary function tests used?
What are the indications?
What are the contraindications?
How to perform each and prepare patients?
How to interpret and reach a diagnosis?
How to clean and calibrate devices?
This is an amazing article giving brief clinical application of PFT.
Bedside PFT are best explained here.
Bedside PFT references most of times are incomplete and inadequate
COURTSEY -DEPARTMENT OF ANESTHESIA, MAMC and LOK NAYAK HOSPITAL, NEW DELHI
This presentation describes the indications, contraindications, methods of performing spirometry. It explains the interpretation of spirometry with examples.
What are the pulmonary function tests used?
What are the indications?
What are the contraindications?
How to perform each and prepare patients?
How to interpret and reach a diagnosis?
How to clean and calibrate devices?
This is an amazing article giving brief clinical application of PFT.
Bedside PFT are best explained here.
Bedside PFT references most of times are incomplete and inadequate
COURTSEY -DEPARTMENT OF ANESTHESIA, MAMC and LOK NAYAK HOSPITAL, NEW DELHI
PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS - LAB DATA INTERPRETATIONLincyAsha
PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS
LAB DATA INTERPRETATION
CLINICAL PHARMACY PRACTICE
M.PHARMACY
PHARMACY PRACTICE
1ST YEAR
Pulmonary function tests are a series of tests performed to examine a patient’s respiratory system and identify the severity of pulmonary impairment.
These tests are performed to measure a patient’s lung volume, capacity, flow rate and gas exchange.
This allows medical professionals to obtain an accurate diagnosis and determine the best course of medical intervention for the patient.
In general there are two types of lung disorders that these tests can be used to assess
Obstructive lung diseases
Restrictive lung diseases
1.OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASES
It include conditions that make it difficult to exhale air out of the lungs
This results in shortness of breath that occurs from narrowing and constriction of the airways and causes the patient to have decreased flow rates. Eg. COPD, Asthma
2.RESTRICTIVE LUNG DISEASES
It include conditions that make it difficult to fully fill the lungs with air during inhalation.
When the lungs aren’t fully able to expand it causes the patient to have decreased lung volumes. Eg. Pulmonary fibrosis, interstitial lung disease
Pulmonary function tests would be indicated for the following:
On healthy patients as part of a routine physical exam
Evaluate signs and symptoms of lung disease
Diagnosis of certain medical conditions
Measure current stage of disease and evaluate its progress
Assess how a patient is responding to different treatments
Determine patient’s condition before surgery to assess the risk of respiratory complications
Screen people who are at risk of pulmonary disease
Determine how much a patient’s airways have narrowed due to disorders
In certain types of work environments to assess the health of employees.
Additionally PFTs may be indicated for the following
Chronic lung conditions
Restrictive airway problems
Asthma
COPD
Shortness of breath
Impairment or disability
Early morning wheezing
Chest muscle weakness
Lung cancer
Respiratory infections
STATIC LUNG VOLUMES
Lung volume is the amount of air breathed by an individual under a specific condition.
1.Tidal Volume (TV)
It is the volume of air inspired or expired during normal breathing at rest.
2.Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
It is the volume of air inspired with maximum effort over and above the normal tidal volume.
3.Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
It is the volume of air expired forcefully after a normal respiration.
4.Residual Volume (RV)
It is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forceful expiration
STATIC LUNG CAPACITIES
1.Inspiratory capacity (IC)
It is the amount of air a person can inspire forcefully after a normal respiration.
IC = TV+IRV
2.Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
It is the amount of air that remains in the lungs at the end of normal respiration.
FRC = ERV+RV
3.Vital Capacity (VC)
It is the maximum volume of air exhaled forcefully from the lungs after a maximum inspiration.
4.Total Lung Capacity
Lung volumes and lung capacities refer to the volume of air in the lungs at different phases of the respiratory cycle.
The average total lung capacity of an adult human male is about 6 litres of air.[1]
Tidal breathing is normal, resting breathing; the tidal volume is the volume of air that is inhaled or exhaled in only a single such breath.
The average human respiratory rate is 30–60 breaths per minute at birth,[2] decreasing to 12–20 breaths per minute in adults.[3
Pulmonary function tests (PFT) are series of tests that measure lung function and aid in the management of patients with respiratory disease.
They are performed using standardized equipment and can be used for diagnosis, prognostication, management and follow-up of patients with pulmonary pathology.
Although PFT may not identify the exact pathology, it broadly classifies respiratory disorders as either obstructive or restrictive. In this session , the role of PFT in the measurement of lung mechanics and diagnosis of various diseases will be discussed in detail.
Weaning from mechanical ventilation , also called ventilator liberation, refers to the process of the patient assuming more and more of the work of breathing and finally demonstrating that ventilator support is no longer required.
Simply it means the process of withdrawing mechanical ventilatory support and transferring the work of breathing from the ventilator to the patient . Weaning can be accomplished with an endotrachel tube ( ETT) or a tracheostomy tube in place.
In the case of the ETT, the final step in the process is the removal of the tube( extubation). With a tracheostomy, the final step may be the ability to breath spontaneously for a designated period of time with the tube in place.
Weaning success is defined as absence of ventilatory support 48 hours following the extubation.
While the spontaneous breaths are unassisted by mechanical ventilation, supplemental oxygen, bronchodilators, low level pressure support ventilation or continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) may be used to support and maintain adequate spontaneous ventilation and oxygenation.
Purpose
The purpose is to assess the probability that mechanical ventilation can be successfully discontinued.as
75% of mechanically ventilated patients are easy to be weaned off the ventilator with simple process.
10-15% of patients require a use of a weaning protocol over a 24-72 hours.
5-10% require a prolonged weaning plan.
1% of patients become dependent on chronic mechanical ventilation.
Indication
Improvement of the cause of respiratory failure.
Absence of major system dysfunction.
Appropriate level of oxygenation.
Adequate ventilatory status.
Intact airway protective mechanism.
Contraindication
Altered sensorium either drowsiness or restlessness.
Spo2 ˂90%
Rising PaCO2 with drop in PH
Tachypnoea ˃35/ min
Tachycardia ˃120 /min
Drop in systolic blood pressure
Sweating
Cold clammy skin
Signs of diaphragmatic weakness
Paradoxical abdominal wall movement
Assessment of readiness for weaning
Hemodynamic stability
Minimum inotropic support
Adequate cardiac output
Afebrile
Hematocrite greater than 25%
Respiratory stability
Improved chest x-ray
Arterial oxygen tension (PaO2) greater than 60mm Hg with fraction of inspired oxygen ( FiO2) less than 0.5
PaO2/FiO2 greater than 300 mm Hg
Positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) less than 0-5 cm H2O
Vital capacity (VC) 10-15ml/kg
Spontaneous tidal volume (VT) 5ml/Kg
Respiratory rate less than 30 breaths/mim
Minute ventilation 5-10 L/min
Negative inspiratory pressure greater than -20cm H2O
Rapid shallow breathing index (RSBI) less than 105
metabolic factors stable
Electrolytes within normal range.
ABGs( Arterial blood gases) normalized
Other
Adequate management of pain and anxiety.
Patient is well rested
Weaning criteria
Weaning criteria are used to evaluate the readiness of a patient for a weaning trial and the likelihood of weaning success.
Clinical criteria
Ventilatory criteria
Oxygenation criteria
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Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
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New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
2. Table of Contents:
• Introduction
• Classification of PFT’s.
• Bedside PFT’s.
• Lung Volumes and Capacities.( Static and Dynamic).
• Spirometry
• Interpretation of a Spirometry.
• Flow volume loops.
• Gas Exchange Function Tests.
• Cardiopulmonary Interaction
• Summary.
2
3. Introduction.
• Pulmonary function tests is a generic term used to indicate a series
of studies or maneuvers that may be performed to measure lung
function.
• Evaluates one or more aspects of the respiratory system:
1. Respiratory mechanics.
2. Lung parenchymal function/ Gas exchange
3. Cardiopulmonary interaction.
3
4. Indications for a PFT : ( American College of Physicians)
Patients under going:
1. Lung resection.
2. Cardiac Surgery.
3. Upper Abdominal Surgeries.
4. Lower Abdominal Surgeries.
• Patients with a history of exposure to lung irritants. ( asbestos).
• H/o prolonged cough or excessive sputum production.
• C/o : cough , dyspnea , orthopnea, wheezing.
• Known smokers.
• Uncharacterized pulmonary disease(defined as H/o Pulmonary Disease or symptoms and no PFT in last
60 days)
4
6. Contraindications:
• Recent eye surgery
• Thoracic , abdominal and cerebral aneurysms
• Active hemoptysis
• Pneumothorax
• Unstable angina/ recent MI within 1 month
6
7. Classification of PFT’
A. Mechanical Ventilatory Functions of Lung/ Chest wall.
B. Gas Exchange Tests.
C. Cardiopulmonary Interaction.
7
8. Mechanical and ventilatory functions of lung/chest wall
Bedside Pulmonary Function Tests:
1.History:
• Daily activity.
• Talking time- whether patient is able to finish his sentence in one
breath or has to catch his breath in between.
2. Examination:
• Orthopnea, dyspnea, cyanosis, chest wall retraction, accessory
muscles of respiration, tracheal tug etc
8
9. Mechanical Ventilatory functions of lung/chest
wall.
Tests:
1. Sabrasez Breath Holding Test:
Ask the patient to take a full but not too deep breath & hold it as
long as possible.
• Normal > 40 seconds.
• 20-25 sec: Mild reduction in cardiopulmonary reserve.
• 15-20 sec : Moderate reduction in cardiopulmonary reserve.
• < 15 sec : Severe reduction and is a contraindication for surgery.
9
10. 2.Snider’s match blowing test / Modified Snider’s test:
• It is an indirect measure of FEV1.
Patient is asked to extinguish a lit match held at 15 cm distance with
mouth open and nose pinched.
It reflects MBC > 60L/min, FEV1 > 1.6 L.
• If the patient is not able to extinguish at 8 cm, reflects FEV1 <1.6 L,
MBC <40 L/minute.
10
11. 3.Forced expiratory time:
• It is done for obstructive diseases.
• Patient has to take a deep breath and then exhale as forcibly and
completely as possible through mouth.
• Normally it is completed in 3 seconds.
• Obstructive Lung Disease - > 6 SEC
• Restructive Lung Disease- < 3 SEC
11
12. 4. Debono’s whistle:
• It measures the peak expiratory flow rate.
• Patient blows down a wide bore tube at the end of which is a whistle.
• On the other side is a hole with adjustable knob.
• As subject blows → whistle blows.
• Leak hole is gradually increased till the intensity of whistle disappears.
• At the last position at which the whistle can be blown , the PEFR can be
read off the scale.
12
13. Static and Dynamic Lung
Volumes
• Static lung volumes reflect the elastic properties of the
lungs and chest wall.
• These include all the capacity measurements.
• Not affected by the rate of air movement in and out of
the lungs
• Dynamic volumes and capacities are based on time and
these tests reflect the caliber and integrity of the airways.
13
15. LUNG VOLUMES:
1. Tidal Volume (TV):
• Volume of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath during quiet
breathing (6‐8 ml/kg).
• Normal : 500 mL
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
• Maximum volume of air inhaled from the end‐ inspiratory tidal
position.
• Normal : 3000 mL
15
16. 3. Expiratory Reserve Volume ( ERV):
• Maximum volume of air that can be exhaled from resting end‐expiratory tidal position.
• Normal :1500 ml
4. Residual Volume (RV):
– Volume of air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation .(20‐25 ml/kg)
Normal :200 ml
– Indirectly measured by (FRC‐ ERV).
– It can not be measured by spirometry .
16
17. Lung Capacities:
1. Total Lung Capacity (TLC):
• Sum of all volume compartments or volume of air in lungs after
maximal inspiration.
• Normal :4‐6 L
2. Vital Capacity (VC) :
• Maximum volume of air exhaled from maximal inspiratory level.
• VC = IRV + TV+ ERV
• Normal : (60‐70 ml/kg)
17
18. 3. Inspiratory Capacity (IC):
• The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled from the end‐expiratory tidal position.
• IC = IRV + TV
• Normal :(2400‐3800ml)
4. Expiratory Capacity (EC):
• EC =TV+ ERV
5.Functional Residual Capacity:
• Is the volume of gas remaining in lungs after passive expiration.
• FRC= RV + ERV.
• It ranges between 1.8-3.4 liters.
• Body plethysmography is the gold standard for measuring FRC.
• Other methods include helium dilution technique and nitrogen washout method.
18
19. • Normal : 30‐35 ml/kg . ( around 50% of TLC)
• Decreases in :
1. Induction of Anesthesia by 16-20%.
2. Supine position.
3. Obese Patients.
Importance of FRC:
• Oxygen store
• Buffer for maintaining a steady arterial po2.
• Partial inflation helps prevent atelectasis.
• Minimizes the work of breathing.
19
21. • Body Plethysmography:
A patient is placed in a sitting position in a closed body box with a known
volume
• The patient pants with an open glottis against a closed shutter to produce
changes in the box pressure proportionate to the volume of air in the chest.
21
22. Dynamic Lung Volumes:
• These are based on time.
• They attempt to quantitate the pulmonary ventilation in terms of rate at
which ventilation takes place.
• Reflects the caliber and integrity of the airways.
1. Forced Vital Capacity. ( FVC)
2. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1).
3. Maximum Voluntary Ventilation: ( MVV)
4. Maximum Breathing Capacity ( MBC)
22
23. Forced Vital Capacity:
• The FVC is the maximum volume of air that can be breathed out as
forcefully and rapidly as possible following a maximum inspiration.
• Characterized by full inspiration to TLC followed by abrupt onset of
expiration to RV.
• The expiration should be at least 4 seconds.
• Should not be interrupted by coughing, glottis closure or
mechanical obstruction.
23
24. • Interpretation of % predicted:
• 80-120% Normal
• 70-79% Mild reduction
• 50%-69% Moderate reduction
• <50% Severe reduction
24
25. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second ( FEV1):
• The volume expired in the first second of the FVC test is called FEV1.
• The FEV1% is FEV1 divided by the FVC (Vital Capacity) X100:
• FEV1%=FEV1/FVC X100.
• This parameter is also known as the Tiffeneau index.
• Nowadays FEV1/FVC X 100 is also accepted as FEV1% (FEV1/FVC ratio).
• A healthy patients expires approximately 80% of all the air out of his lungs in the first
second during the FVC maneuver..
• FEV1/FVC ratio < 0.8 = Obstructive disease
• FEV1/FVC ratio > 0.8 = Restrictive Disease.
25
26. • Interpretation of % predicted:
• >75% Normal
• 60%‐75% Mild obstruction
• 50‐59% Moderate obstruction
• <49% Severe obstruction
26
27. Maximum Voluntary Ventilation: ( MVV)
• Is the largest volume that can be breathed per minute by
maximum voluntary efforts.
• MVV = FEV1 × 35 and is about 100-200 L/minute.
• It is decreased in old age, pulmonary emphysema,
bronchospasm, obstruction etc.
Maximum Breathing Capacity: (MBC)
• is the maximum volume that can be breathed per minute.
27
28. Spirometry
• Spirometry is the ‘cornerstone’ of all PFT’s.
• Invented by John Hutchinson in 1864.
• Measures the rate at which the lungs change volume during quite
and forced breathing maneuvres.
• It can only measure lung volume compartments that exchange gas
with the atmosphere.
• Cannot measure — FRC,RV, TLC.
28
32. • 3. Satisfactory exhalation with 6 seconds of smooth
continuous exhalation, with a plateau of at least 1
second.
No Plateau
Normal
32
33. Interpretation of a PFT.
Getting started :
Before PFT results can be reliably interpreted, three factors must be confirmed:
(1) the volume-time curve reaches a plateau, and expiration lasts at least 6
seconds.
(2) results of the two best efforts on the PFT are within 0.2 L of each other
(Figure 3) and
(3) the flow- volume loops are free of artifacts and abnormalities.
33
34. Step 1: Determine If the FEV1
/FVC Ratio Is Low.
• Physicians have two options to determine if this ratio is low.
• The first option is to follow the GOLD criteria, which use a cutoff of less
than 70%.
• The second option is to follow the ATS criteria, which use the lower limit
of normal (LLN) as the cutoff for adults.
• The LLN is a measurement less than the 5th percentile of spirometry data
obtained from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES III).
• Most modern PFT software can calculate the LLN.
34
35. Step 2 : Determine If the FVC Is Low
The physician must determine if the FVC is
1. Less than the LLN for adults or
2. Less than 80% of predicted for those 5 to 18 years of age, indicating a
restrictive pattern.
35
37. Step 3: Confirm the Restrictive Pattern
• If the patient’s initial PFT results indicate a
restrictive pattern or a mixed pattern that is not
corrected with bronchodilators, the patient should
be referred for full PFTs with DLCO testing.
37
38. Interpretation :
• Full PFTs provide the patient’s total lung capacity.
• The restrictive pattern is confirmed as a true restrictive defect if the total
lung capacity is less than 80% of predicted in patients 5 to 18 years of
age, or less than the LLN in adults.
• If full PFTs cannot be obtained, the FVC can be used to infer a restrictive
defect; however, FVC has a poor positive predictive value.
38
39. Step 4: Grade the Severity of the Abnormality :
• If an obstructive defect, a restrictive pattern, or a mixed pattern is present,
as defined by steps 1 and 2, the physician should grade the severity of
the abnormality based on the FEV1 percentage of predicted.
• The ATS system for grading the severity of a PFT abnormality is
summarized in Table below.
39
40. Step 6: Bronchoprovocation :
• If PFT results are normal but the physician still suspects exercise- or
allergen-induced asthma.
• The next step is bronchoprovocation, such as a methacholine challenge, a
mannitol inhalation challenge, exercise testing, or sometimes eucapnic
voluntary hyperpnea testing.
• When the FEV1 is 70% or more of predicted on standard spirometry,
bronchoprovocation should be used to make the diagnosis. If the FEV1 is
less than 70% of predicted, a therapeutic trial of a bronchodilator may be
considered.
40
41. METHACHOLINE CHALLENGE :
• The methacholine challenge is highly sensitive for diagnosing asthma.
• However, its low specificity results in false-positive results.
• A positive methacholine challenge result is defined as a greater than
20% reduction in FEV1 at administration of 4 mg per mL of inhaled
methacholine.
• The result is considered border- line if the FEV1 drops by 20% at a dose
between 4 and 16 mg per mL.
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42. Step 5: Determine Reversibility of the Obstructive Defect:
• If the patient has an obstructive defect, the physician should determine if it is
reversible based on the increase in FEV1 or FVC after bronchodilator treatment
(i.e., increase of more than 12% in patients 5 to 18 years of age, or more than 12%
and more than 200 mL in adults).3
• Figure 4 shows a fully reversible obstructive defect. Obstructive defects in persons
with asthma are usually fully reversible, whereas defects in persons with COPD
typically are not.
• If PFTs show a mixed pattern and the FVC corrects to 80% or more of predicted in
patients 5 to 18 years of age or to the LLN or more in adults after bronchodilator
use, it is likely that the patient has pure obstructive lung disease with air
trapping.
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44. Step 7: Establish the Differential Diagnosis:
• Once PFT results have been interpreted, the
broad differential diagnosis should be
considered.
44
45. Step 8: Compare Current and Prior PFT Results:
If a patient’s prior PFT results are available, they
should be compared with the current results to
determine the course of the disease or effects of
treatment.
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48. • Inspiratory limb of loop is symmetric and convex.
• Expiratory limb is linear.
• Flow rates at the midpoint of the inspiratory and
expiratory capacity are often measured.
• Maximal inspiratory flow at 50% of forced vital capacity
(MIF 50%FVC) is greater than maximal expiratory flow
at 50% FVC (MEF 50%FVC) because dynamic
compression of the airways occurs during exhalation.
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49. • Flow Volume Loops in Obstructive Diseases.
B) Obstructive disease (eg, emphysema, asthma)
Although all flow rates are diminished, expiratory prolongation
predominates, and MEF < MIF. Peak expiratory flow is
sometimes used to estimate degree of airway obstruction but
is dependent on patient effort.
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51. • Restrictive disease (eg, interstitial lung disease,
kyphoscoliosis).
• The loop is narrowed because of diminished lung volumes,
but the shape is generally the same as in normal volume.
• Flow rates are greater than normal at comparable lung
volumes because the increased elastic recoil of lungs holds
the airways open.
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53. • Examples :Tracheal stenosis, goiter.
• The top and bottom of the loops are flattened so
that the configuration approaches that of a
rectangle.
• Fixed obstruction limits flow equally during
inspiration and expiration, and MEF = MIF.
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55. • Ex :unilateral vocal cord paralysis, vocal cord dysfunction.
• When a single vocal cord is paralyzed, it moves passively
with pressure gradients across the glottis.
• During forced inspiration, it is drawn inward, resulting in a
plateau of decreased inspiratory flow.
• During forced expiration, it is passively blown aside, and
expiratory flow is unimpaired.
• Therefore, MIF 50%FVC < MEF 50%FVC
55
57. • During a forced inspiration, negative pleural
pressure holds the “floppy” trachea open.
• With forced expiration, loss of structural support
results in tracheal narrowing of the trachea and a
plateau of diminished flow.
• Flow is maintained briefly before airway
compression occurs.
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58. Gas Exchange Function
Tests
ALVEOLAR‐ARTERIAL O2 TENSION GRADIENT:
• Sensitive indicator of detecting regional V/Q
inequality.
• A‐a gradient = PAO2 ‐ PaO2.
• PAO2 = alveolar PO2 (calculated from the
alveolar gas equation)
• PaO2 = arterial PO2 (measured in arterial gas)
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60. • A normal A–a gradient for a young adult non-
smoker breathing air, is between 5–10 mmHg.
• Normally, the A–a gradient increases with age.
• An abnormally increased A–a gradient suggests
a defect in diffusion, V/Q (ventilation/perfusion
ratio) mismatch, or right-to-left shunt.[
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61. DLCO TESTING :
• DLCO is a quantitative measurement of gas transfer in the lungs.
• Diseases that decrease blood flow to the lungs or damage alveoli will cause less
efficient gas exchange, resulting in a lower DLCO measurement.
• During the DLCO test, patients inhale a mixture of helium (10%), carbon monoxide
(0.3%), oxygen (21%), and nitrogen (68.7%)12
then hold their breath for 10 seconds
before exhaling.
• The amounts of exhaled helium and carbon monoxide are used to calculate the
DLCO.
• CO is used to estimate gas transfer instead of oxygen due to its much higher
affinity for hemoglobin.
• Full PFTs provide the patient’s total lung capacity.
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63. Cardiopulmonary Interaction.
Stair climbing and 6 ‐minute walk test:
• This is a simple test that is easy to perform with
minimal equipment. Interpreted as in the
following table:
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64. Shuttle walk
• The patient walks between cones 10 meters apart
with increasing pace.
• The subject walks until they cannot make it from
cone to cone between the beeps.
• Less than 250m or decrease SaO2 > 4% signifies
high risk.
• A shuttle walk of 350m correlates with a VO2 max
of 11ml.kg ‐ 1.min ‐ 1
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65. Assessment of lung function in
thoracotomy pts.
As an anesthesiologist our goal is to :
1) To identify pts at risk of increased post‐op
morbidity & mortality
2) To identify pts who need short‐term or long term
post‐op ventilatory support.
Lung resection may be f/by – inadequate gas
exchange, pulm HTN & incapacitating dyspnoea.
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66. • Calculating the predicted postoperative FEV1 (ppoFEV1)
and TLCO (ppoTLCO):
• There are 5 lung lobes containing 19 segments in total
with the division of each lobe.
• Ppo FEV1=preoperative FEV1 * no. of segments left
after resection 19.
• Can be assessed by ventilation perfusion scan.
• For eg: A 57-year-old man is booked for lung resection.
His CT chest show a large RUL mass confirmed as
carcinoma: ppoFEV1= 50*16/19=42%
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