The prostate is a gland located below the bladder. It helps produce fluid for semen. Common prostate issues include benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), prostatitis, and prostate cancer. BPH involves non-cancerous growth of the prostate and affects most men as they age. Prostatitis is prostate inflammation that can be acute or chronic. Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men over 65. Early prostate cancer may have no symptoms, while advanced cases can spread to bones.
Located between the bladder and rectum, the prostate is a gland made up of two lobes and surrounded by a layer of tissue.
http://www.prostate-health-center.com
This is a powerpoint presentation on the Topic of Male and female genital tract, based on Robbin's textbook of pathology. Prepared by Dr. Ashish Jawarkar, who is Assistant professor at Parul institute of medical sciences and research, Vadodara. Please subscribe to our youtube channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwjkzK-YnJ-ra4HMOqq3Fkw . Our facebook page: facebook.com/pathologybasics
Similar to Prostate Anatomy,physiology & Pathology (20)
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
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4. Definition :
Prostate is a fibromuculoglndular structure situated between the neck of
the bladder and external urethral sphincter and surround the prostatic urethra, it is
conical in shape
It has 3 surfaces
1. Anterior
2. posterior
3. Two inferio-lateral
it has 5 lobes
1.Anterior
2.Posterior
3.Median
4.Two Lateral
5. About 3cm vertically , 4cm Transversally at base and about
2cm antero-posteriorly.
15-20 gm
Adenoma usually occurs in medial and lateral lobes, it never occurs in
ant & pos lobe because they are mainly of fibromuscular tissue &
devoid of glandular structures
10. The prostate is related to the two capsules and one fascia behind
1. True Capsule
Formed by the condensation of the prostate at periphery
2. False Capsule
Formed by the visceral layer by the pelvic fascias
(The prostatic venous plexus lies between these capsules)
3. Surgical Capsule
Formed by the non adenomatous tissue of the prostate which
is pushed by the hypertrophied gland to the periphery
Fascia Behind the Prostate
it is also known as rectovesical, prostatoperitonial,denivillier’s fascia
11. inside and around the prostate
Urethra is divided into three parts
1. Prostatic urethra(Widest and most dilatable part)
2. Membranous urethra (Shortest and least dilatable part)
3. Spongy Urethra
A. Internal Sphincter(Sphincter Vesicae) at the neck of Bladder
B. External Sphincter or sphincter urethrae
12. Neck of Bladder
External Urethral sphincter
Danovillir’s fascia
Levator ani
Internal Iliac artery(Inferior Vesical and middle rectal arteries)
: Same as via posterior venous plexus but some drainage also
occurs valve less vertebral plexus which is responsible for haematogenous
spread of Ca of prostate to the bones of vertebra etc
Internal Iliac Lymph Node
13. 1. The testicular hormone regulate the prostate, Testosterone is
secreted by leydig cells of the testes, in the absence of the both
testis (Testicular hormones) the prostate fails to develop.
2. The prostate secrete the specific fluid (Prostatic fluid( which
provide 10-20% volume of ejaculation, it contains the
prostaglandin enzymes and acid phosphates, it has anti bacterial
property which helps to prevent UTI.
3. Prostate also secretes a glycoproteinous fluid which is known as
PSA, The PSA actually liquefies the semen and allows the sperm
to swim freely, and it is the best tumor marker for Ca prostate
14. Less than 4 nmol/ml Normal
4-8 nmol/ml BPH
9-10 nmol/ml Diagnostic for BPH & suggestible for CA
More than 10 mol/ml Suggestive for CA Prostate
15.
16. Benign prostatic hyperplasia is the histological pattern of the
prostate, characterized by proliferation of smooth muscle and epithelial
cells within the prostatic transition zone. This may lead to prostatic
enlargement.
It is considered a normal part of aging in men and is hormonally
dependent on testosterone and DHT production.
50% of men develop BPH by age 60 years and 90% by age 85 years.
17. It is involuntary hyperplasia due to disturbance of the ratio and quantity
of circulating androgens and estrogens.
BPH is a benign neoplasm, also called as fibromyoadenoma.
With age TS level drops slowly. But fall of oestrogen level is not equal.
So prostate enlarges through intermediate peptide growth factor.
BPH arises from submucosal glands of periurethral transitional zone
with stromal proliferation and adenosis. It eventually compresses the
peripheral zone and enlarges as lateral lobe.
BPH arising from subcervical glands of central zone enlarges as middle
lobe projecting up into the bladder.
21. 1. Size- upper pole is easily reached/with difficulty/not reachable.
2. Consistency- Rubber/soft/firm/hard.
3. Rectal mucosa- Gliding/fixed
4. Surface- Smooth/nodular.
5. Tenderness- Absent/Present
6. Median Sulcus- Prominent/palpable/obliterated
22. Grade I---Upper pole easily reachable
Grade II---Upper pole reachable with difficulty
Grade III--- Can’t be reachable
Normal Weight --------18-20 gm
Grade I up to --------upto 25gm
Grade II upto --------upto 50gm
Grade III upto --------upto 70gm
Grade IVupto --------upto 80 gm
Grade V upto -------->80 gm
23.
24. Changes in the urethra:
Enlargement of the prostatic urethra
Exaggeration of the normal posterior curvature of the prostatic urethra
Urethra compressed laterally reducing it to an A-P slit
Changes in the urinary Bladder:
Compensatory hypertrophy of the vesical detrussor
Trabeculation of bladder wall.
Hypertrophy of the trigone.
Formation of diverticula
Formation of pool of residual urine- cystitis,calculus
Changes in ureters and kidney:
Hydroureter and Hydronephrosis
Vesicoureteric reflux- Ac. & Chr. Pyelonephritis
25.
26.
27. Types
Acute or chronic.
Causes:
Due to instrumentation.
Ascending infection from below.
Haematogenous.
Descending infection from above.
Bacteria involved:
E. coli, Klebsiella, Proteus.
Staphylococcus.
Streptococcus faecalis.
Gonococcus
28. Pain, frequency, fever with chills and rigors.
Retention of urine.
Perineal heaviness, pain on defaecation.
Tender prostate on per rectal examination.
Initial fraction of urine is turbid which is sent for culture
and sensitivity.
29. Caused by E. coli, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Trichomonas,Chlamydia.
There is always associated posterior urethritis.
Epididymitis.
Pain in the perineum, rectum, low back pain, leg pain.
Fever.
Sexual dysfunction.
Per rectal examination shows tender prostate.
Prostatic fl uid obtained by prostatic massage shows 15 or more pus cells/HPF.
30. It is infection, suppuration and pus formation in the prostate gland.
Presentation is fever, rigors, perineal pain, urinary disturbances, and
tender
Soft fluctuant swelling in the prostate onrectal examination.
Often presentation may be retention of urine.
Total count will be increased.
Urine will show pus cells.
US is diagnostic. US is often done over perineum also.
Treatment is antibiotics; US guided aspiration transperineally in
lithotomy position or transperineal incision and drainage.
Suprapubic cystostomy is better in case of retention of urine.
After drainage antibiotics are needed for longer period of 6 weeks to
prevent recurrent infection.
31. It is low urinary flow rate with the presence of high voiding pressure.
It is an urodynamically confirmed entity.
It is diagnosed by urodynamic pressure flow study.
Flow rate will be les than 10 ml/second with voiding pressure more
than 80 cm of water.
Eventually detrusor inefficiency occurs causing significant residual
urine.
32. —BPH; bladder neck hypertrophy or stenosis; carcinoma
of prostate; urethral stricture; functional bladder neck obstruction.
—acute retention of urine; chronic retention of urine;
impaired bladder emptying; uraemia; infection; stone formation,
haematuria.
US; renal function tests; IVU; PSA are the investigations.
Management is by treating the cause by cystoscopic bladder
neck incision, urethrotomy; TURP, etc.
33. It is the most common malignant tumour in men over 65 years.
Carcinoma prostate occurs in peripheral zone in prostatic gland
proper, i.e. commonly in posterior lobe. So prostatectomy for BPH
does not confer protection against development of carcinoma prostate.
Incidence of prostate cancer in men over 80 years is 70%.
34. Microscopically latent
Tumours incidentally found either by TURP or by PSA estimation
Early localised carcinoma
Advanced local prostatic carcinoma
Metastatic carcinoma either into the bone commonly or other
organs
Histology: It is an adenocarcinoma, wherein there is loss of myoepithelial cell layer
which normally surrounds the prostatic glands (Gleason). Glands here appear in
confluence. Grading of carcinoma is based on dedifferentiation as proposed by
Gleason.
35. Occult—Diagnosed after investigation due to sus picion
Stage I—Tumour confi ned to prostate/local nodule
Stage II—Tumour involving capsule or diffuse type
Stage III—Tumour involving seminal vesicle
Stage IV—Extension into adjacent tissue
Staging of Ca prostate (A) Occult, (B) Stage I, (C) Stage II, (D) Stage III, (E) Stage IV.
A
ED
CB