Primary motor cortex
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The primary motor cortex is responsible for planning, initiating, and directing voluntary movements. It contains the precentral gyrus and posterior parts of the superior, middle, and inferior frontal gyri. The primary motor cortex encodes movement intentions and is involved in both voluntary movements and the expression of emotions through facial gestures and body posture. Brainstem motor centers help control posture and reflexes. The lateral corticospinal tract governs distal limb muscles for skilled movements while the ventromedial tract governs proximal muscles and posture. The motor cortex has a fractured somatotopic organization and single neurons can activate multiple muscles.
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Motor cortex
Nervous system, Motor cortex, ascending tracts, descending tracts (Pyramidal tracts and extra pyramidal tracts)
NEUROANATOMY OF BRAINSTEM
BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem lies at the base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord.
The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa.
The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
Provides a pathway for tracts running between higher and lower neural centers.
Divided into 3 major divisions:
midbrain,
pons, and
medulla oblongata.
It is responsible for many vital functions of life, such as breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
It contains many critical collections of white and grey matter.
The grey matter within the brainstem consists of nerve cell bodies and form many important brainstem nuclei. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves arise from their cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem.
The white matter tracts of the brainstem include axons of nerves traversing their course to different structures. These tracts travel both to the brain (afferent) and from the brain (efferent) such as the somatosensory pathways and the corticospinal tracts, respectively.
Mid Brain
The midbrain is continuous with the cerebral hemisphere.
The upper posterior (i.e. rear) portion of the midbrain is called the tectum, which means "roof."
The surface of the tectum is covered with four bumps representing two paired structures: the superior and inferior colliculi.
The superior colliculi are involved in eye movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory processing.
Another important nucleus, the substantia nigra, is located here.
The substantia nigra is rich in dopamine neurons and is considered part of the basal ganglia.
Pons
An important pathway for tracts that run from the cerebrum down to the medulla and spinal cord, as well as for tracts that travel up into the brain.
It also forms important connections with the cerebellum via fibre bundles known as the cerebellar peduncles.
Posteriorly, the pons and medulla are separated from the cerebellum by the fourth ventricle.
Home to several nuclei for cranial nerves.
Medulla
The point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
Contains a nucleus called the nucleus of the solitary tract that is crucial for our survival (receives information about blood flow, along with information about levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, from the heart and major blood vessels).
When this information suggests a discordance with bodily needs (e.g. blood pressure is too low), there are reflexive actions initiated in the nucleus of the solitary tract to bring things back to within the desired range.
Blood Supply
The brain stem receives its blood supply exclusively from the posterior circulation, including the vertebrae and basilar artery.
The medulla receives its blood supply from the vertebral via medial and lateral perforating arteries.
The pons and midbrain receive their blood from the basilar via the medial and lateral perforating arteries.
Basal ganglia
functions of basal ganglia and detail structure is discussed in the slides. Cognitive process of thinking is discussed.
Anatomy of the spinal cord
The spinal cord extends from the brainstem down to the lumbar region. It contains gray matter surrounded by white matter and is segmented into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions. The spinal cord transmits sensory information from the body to the brain via dorsal roots and carries motor commands from the brain to the body via ventral roots. Each segment innervates a specific dermatome of skin and muscles. The meninges protect the spinal cord and CSF circulates in the subarachnoid space.
Cerebellum
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of the cerebellum. It begins by outlining the embryonic development and subdivision of the nervous system. It then describes the three functionally distinct regions of the cerebellum - the vestibulocerebellum, spinocerebellum, and cerebrocerebellum - and their different inputs and outputs. The document also discusses the cerebellar peduncles, cortex, and nuclei. It outlines the roles of the cerebellum in motor control and coordination and describes clinical signs of cerebellar dysfunction such as ataxia.
Cerebrum
The document describes the anatomy of the cerebrum and base of the skull. It discusses the lobes and cortical regions of the cerebrum, including the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. It also describes the structures and openings at the base of the skull, such as the foramen magnum, jugular foramen, optic canal and others.
Sacral plexus
The sacral plexus is formed from the lumbosacral trunk and the first through fourth sacral ventral rami. It provides motor and sensory nerves to the posterior thigh, lower leg, foot, and pelvis. The most clinically important branches are the sciatic, tibial, and peroneal nerves. The sacral plexus innervates muscles like the gluteals, hamstrings, and muscles of the lower leg and foot. It also provides cutaneous innervation to the posterior thigh, leg, foot, and perineum.
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- Connections with other parts of the brain and spinal cord
- Key functions in controlling posture, balance, muscle tone, and voluntary movement
- Effects of cerebellar lesions and clinical tests used to assess cerebellar dysfunction
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NEUROANATOMY OF BRAINSTEM
BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem lies at the base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord.
The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa.
The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
Provides a pathway for tracts running between higher and lower neural centers.
Divided into 3 major divisions:
midbrain,
pons, and
medulla oblongata.
It is responsible for many vital functions of life, such as breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
It contains many critical collections of white and grey matter.
The grey matter within the brainstem consists of nerve cell bodies and form many important brainstem nuclei. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves arise from their cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem.
The white matter tracts of the brainstem include axons of nerves traversing their course to different structures. These tracts travel both to the brain (afferent) and from the brain (efferent) such as the somatosensory pathways and the corticospinal tracts, respectively.
Mid Brain
The midbrain is continuous with the cerebral hemisphere.
The upper posterior (i.e. rear) portion of the midbrain is called the tectum, which means "roof."
The surface of the tectum is covered with four bumps representing two paired structures: the superior and inferior colliculi.
The superior colliculi are involved in eye movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory processing.
Another important nucleus, the substantia nigra, is located here.
The substantia nigra is rich in dopamine neurons and is considered part of the basal ganglia.
Pons
An important pathway for tracts that run from the cerebrum down to the medulla and spinal cord, as well as for tracts that travel up into the brain.
It also forms important connections with the cerebellum via fibre bundles known as the cerebellar peduncles.
Posteriorly, the pons and medulla are separated from the cerebellum by the fourth ventricle.
Home to several nuclei for cranial nerves.
Medulla
The point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
Contains a nucleus called the nucleus of the solitary tract that is crucial for our survival (receives information about blood flow, along with information about levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, from the heart and major blood vessels).
When this information suggests a discordance with bodily needs (e.g. blood pressure is too low), there are reflexive actions initiated in the nucleus of the solitary tract to bring things back to within the desired range.
Blood Supply
The brain stem receives its blood supply exclusively from the posterior circulation, including the vertebrae and basilar artery.
The medulla receives its blood supply from the vertebral via medial and lateral perforating arteries.
The pons and midbrain receive their blood from the basilar via the medial and lateral perforating arteries.
Basal ganglia
functions of basal ganglia and detail structure is discussed in the slides. Cognitive process of thinking is discussed.
Anatomy of the spinal cord
The spinal cord extends from the brainstem down to the lumbar region. It contains gray matter surrounded by white matter and is segmented into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions. The spinal cord transmits sensory information from the body to the brain via dorsal roots and carries motor commands from the brain to the body via ventral roots. Each segment innervates a specific dermatome of skin and muscles. The meninges protect the spinal cord and CSF circulates in the subarachnoid space.
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Cerebrum
The document describes the anatomy of the cerebrum and base of the skull. It discusses the lobes and cortical regions of the cerebrum, including the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. It also describes the structures and openings at the base of the skull, such as the foramen magnum, jugular foramen, optic canal and others.
Sacral plexus
The sacral plexus is formed from the lumbosacral trunk and the first through fourth sacral ventral rami. It provides motor and sensory nerves to the posterior thigh, lower leg, foot, and pelvis. The most clinically important branches are the sciatic, tibial, and peroneal nerves. The sacral plexus innervates muscles like the gluteals, hamstrings, and muscles of the lower leg and foot. It also provides cutaneous innervation to the posterior thigh, leg, foot, and perineum.
Cerebellum ppt
The document provides an overview of the cerebellum including its:
- Physiological anatomy, divisions, and histological structure
- Neural circuits and neuronal activity
- Connections with other parts of the brain and spinal cord
- Key functions in controlling posture, balance, muscle tone, and voluntary movement
- Effects of cerebellar lesions and clinical tests used to assess cerebellar dysfunction
Anatomy of cerebellum
The cerebellum has three main parts - the vermis, two hemispheres, and four lobes. It receives sensory input from the spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebral cortex. There are three layers in the cerebellar cortex - molecular layer, purkinje cell layer, and granular layer. The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem via three cerebellar peduncles and plays a role in motor coordination and balance.
Detailed Anatomy of Medulla Oblongata ppt
1.Anatomy of the Medulla
2. Introduction to Brainstem Anatomy of the brainstem includes ( midbrain-pons-medulla ) is very complicated !! •It connects spinal cord to the cerebrum. • The mid brain pons, and medulla are connected to cerebellum posteriorly. •1 - ascending an descending tracts that connect brain to spinal cord. •2 - cranial nerves nuclei and their connections •3 - Reticular formation •4 - others e.g (olivarynucleus in MO tapizusbody in pons and red nucleus in MB )
3. Medulla oblongata •The medulla oblongata is the part of the brainstem between the pons and spinal cord •It extends through the foramen magnum to the level of the atlas. •Medulla is vital for our function, without medulla we die. •Above the foramen magnum it is embraced dorsally by the cerebellar hemispheres. 1.The lower end which contains the upward continuation of the central canal of the spinal cord is the ‘closed part of the medulla’, 2.The upper end, where the canal comes to the surface as the lower part of the floor of the fourth ventricle, is the ‘open part’.
4. Medulla contd….. MO is lowest 3 cm of the brainstem •it extend from the ponto- medullary junction until plane below foramina magnum for about 0.5 cm. •Medulla spinalis have a central canal which prolonged into its lower half to open in the fourth ventricle at its upper half. •CSF is encircle the MO from outside ( subarachnoid space ) and inside ( central canal ). •MO is between the two lobes of cerebellum ( anterior cerebellar notch )
5. EXTERNAL FEATURES AND RELATIONS • 3Cm long. • Located at the caudal portion of brainstem • Upper limit is cerebello-pontine angle • Transverse plane that above C1 (suboccipital) intersects upper border of atlas dorsally and centre of dens ventrally marks lower limit
6. VENTRAL SURFACE • Ventral median fissure extends from foramen coecum to caudal end of pyramid decussation • Lateral to median fissure is pyramid • Lat to pyramid is the ventrolateral sulcus (VLS) • Hypoglossal nerve rootlets emerge from VLS • Lat to VLS is olive which contains inf olivary nucleus • Inferior cerebellar peduncle connects medulla with cerebellum and forms side wall of caudal half of fourth ventricle
7. Ventral Surface Pyramid: Swelling on each side of anterior median fissure. • Composed of bundles of nerve fibers, (corticospinal fibers) originate from the precentral gyrus of the cerebral cortex. • The pyramids taper inferiorly and majority of the descending fibers decussate to the opposite side. Olive: • Olives are the anterolateral oval elevations produced by the underlying inferior olivary nuclei. • From the groove between the pyramid and the olive, the rootlets of the hypoglossal nerve emerge
8. LATERAL ASPECT • Roots of glossopharyngeal , vagus and cranial division of accessory nerves are attached to the medulla dorsal to olive.
9. Dorsal surface At dorsal surface of closed part of medulla, gracile and cuneate fasciculi continue from the spinal
Spinal cord
The spinal cord extends from the skull to the lumbar vertebrae and contains gray matter in an H-shaped arrangement. It provides bidirectional communication between the brain and body via ascending and descending tracts. The spinal cord is protected within vertebrae and surrounded by meninges including the dura, arachnoid, and pia mater.
Spinal cord & its tracts II (Descending tracts)
This document summarizes the descending tracts of the spinal cord, which transmit signals from the brain to the spinal cord. It describes the major descending tracts, including the corticospinal, reticulospinal, tectospinal, rubrospinal, vestibulospinal, and olivospinal tracts. It provides details on the origin, pathway, termination, and functions of each tract. The document also briefly discusses intersegmental tracts, decerebrate rigidity, and Renshaw cells.
Commissural fibres
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Anterior commissure.
Posterior commissure.
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Habenular commissure.
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The document discusses the anatomy and functions of the cerebellum. It describes the cerebellum's connections to other parts of the brain and its divisions. The cerebellum receives input from various pathways and sends output through several nuclei to control muscle tone, coordinate movement, balance, equilibrium, and speech. It plays an important role in motor learning and planning sequential movements.
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This document summarizes the functional anatomy of the cerebral hemispheres. It describes the six layers of the cerebral cortex and areas related to somatosensory, motor, visual, auditory, and olfactory functions. It discusses association areas including the parietooccipitotemporal area, prefrontal cortex, Wernicke's area, and angular gyrus. It also briefly mentions control of eye movements, face recognition, speech processing, and functions of the non-dominant hemisphere.
Cerebral cortex ppt
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The cerebral hemispheres - Gross Anatomy & Connections
This slides helps you to understand the gross anatomy of cerebral hemispheres, functions & their connections with one lobe to another lobe..
Ascending tracts
1) The document describes the ascending sensory tracts that carry sensations from the body to the brain. It focuses on the dorsal column-medial lemniscal system and the anterolateral system.
2) The dorsal column tract carries fine touch, vibration, and proprioception. It ascends ipsilaterally in the spinal cord and crosses over in the medulla before terminating in the thalamus.
3) The anterolateral system includes the ventral and lateral spinothalamic tracts. The ventral tract carries crude touch and the lateral tract carries pain and temperature. They both cross over in the spinal cord and ascend to the thalamus.
Pyramidal Tract
The document summarizes the descending motor tracts that transmit signals from the brain to lower motor neurons and muscles. It focuses on the pyramidal tracts, including the corticospinal tract which controls voluntary limb movement, and corticobulbar tract which controls head and neck muscles. The corticospinal tract originates in motor areas of the cortex and projects through the brainstem and spinal cord. The corticobulbar tract projects to motor nuclei controlling cranial nerves.
NEUROANATOMY - I
The document provides an overview of neuroanatomy, beginning with the divisions of the nervous system into the central and peripheral nervous systems. It then describes the structures and components of the central nervous system in detail, including the brainstem, cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Key topics covered include the meninges, ventricular system, blood supply, ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex.
Cerebrum
The document describes the anatomy and functional areas of the cerebrum. It notes that the cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum. It is further divided into four lobes - frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital - by sulci including the central sulcus. The document outlines the motor, sensory, auditory, visual, and other functional areas located within the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes and their functions. It also describes the sulci, gyri, and structures located on the three surfaces and inferior surface of the cerebrum.
Cerebrum
The document summarizes key aspects of the cerebrum and cerebral hemispheres. It describes the cerebrum as the largest part of the brain, located in the anterior and middle cranial fossa. It notes that the cerebral hemispheres are separated by a longitudinal cerebral fissure and connected by the corpus callosum. It then outlines the lobes of the cerebral hemispheres and some of the main sulci and gyri on the surface of each lobe.
motor cortex
This document summarizes the cortical and brain stem control of motor function. It discusses how the motor cortex, premotor area, and supplementary motor area initiate voluntary movements by activating patterns stored in lower brain areas like the brain stem and cerebellum. These lower centers then send control signals to muscles. It describes areas of the motor cortex and their functions, as well as pathways involving the brain stem, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and spinal cord that integrate to control motor functions. Damage to different areas can impact speech, eye and head movements, and dexterity.
Pons Anatomy
Dr. Mehul Tandel
Assistant Professor
Anatomy Department
Pramukhswami Medical College
Karamsad, Gujarat
Tracts
This document summarizes the major ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord and brainstem that transmit sensory and motor information. It describes the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway and anterolateral system, which are the main conscious sensory tracts transmitting touch, proprioception, vibration, pain and temperature. It also discusses the spinocerebellar tracts that transmit unconscious proprioceptive information to the cerebellum. On the motor side, it outlines the pyramidal tracts including the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts, as well as the extrapyramidal tracts that control posture, balance and locomotion.
corticobulbar tract
The corticobulbar tract is composed of fibers that pass from the motor cortex to motor neurons in the trigeminal, facial, and hyoglossal nuclei in the brainstem. The fibers originate from pyramidal neurons in layer V of the cerebral cortex and travel through the internal capsule and cerebral peduncle to descend with the corticospinal tract in the pons and medulla. The corticobulbar tract is responsible for voluntary control of muscles of the larynx, pharynx, palate, face, jaw, and eyes. Damage to the tracts can result in pseudobulbar palsy, characterized by paralysis or weakness of muscles that control swallowing, talking, tongue,
Corticospinal tract (Pyramidal tract)
here i am to explain the Anatomy and physiology of part of the Pyramidal tract, that is the corticospinal tract. I also added the clinical significance of corticospinal tract. The course of the corticospinal tract are well explained.
Basal ganglia
The document provides an overview of the basal ganglia. It discusses the physiological anatomy and components of the basal ganglia, including the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. It describes the connections and functional neuronal circuits of the basal ganglia. The functions of the basal ganglia in motor control and disorders such as Parkinson's disease, chorea, athetosis, and Huntington's disease are summarized.
Cns 6
The document discusses the structure and function of the cerebral cortex. It describes that motor and sensory areas are localized in discrete cortical domains, while higher functions like memory and language have overlapping domains. It then focuses on motor areas of the cortex, describing the primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, Broca's area, and their functions in controlling voluntary movement. Finally, it discusses descending motor pathways from the cortex to the spinal cord, including the direct pyramidal tracts and indirect extrapyramidal tracts.
Motor system
The motor system consists of lower and upper motor neurons.
Lower motor neurons originate in the spinal cord and brainstem and directly innervate skeletal muscles, controlling movement. Upper motor neurons originate in the motor cortex and brainstem and project to lower motor neurons.
Upper motor neurons are involved in encoding movement intention, expressing emotions, skilled motor behavior, and setting the gain of reflexes through pathways like the corticospinal tract. Damage results in spasticity and hyperreflexia, while sparing muscle strength.
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Anatomy of cerebellum
The cerebellum has three main parts - the vermis, two hemispheres, and four lobes. It receives sensory input from the spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebral cortex. There are three layers in the cerebellar cortex - molecular layer, purkinje cell layer, and granular layer. The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem via three cerebellar peduncles and plays a role in motor coordination and balance.
Detailed Anatomy of Medulla Oblongata ppt
1.Anatomy of the Medulla
2. Introduction to Brainstem Anatomy of the brainstem includes ( midbrain-pons-medulla ) is very complicated !! •It connects spinal cord to the cerebrum. • The mid brain pons, and medulla are connected to cerebellum posteriorly. •1 - ascending an descending tracts that connect brain to spinal cord. •2 - cranial nerves nuclei and their connections •3 - Reticular formation •4 - others e.g (olivarynucleus in MO tapizusbody in pons and red nucleus in MB )
3. Medulla oblongata •The medulla oblongata is the part of the brainstem between the pons and spinal cord •It extends through the foramen magnum to the level of the atlas. •Medulla is vital for our function, without medulla we die. •Above the foramen magnum it is embraced dorsally by the cerebellar hemispheres. 1.The lower end which contains the upward continuation of the central canal of the spinal cord is the ‘closed part of the medulla’, 2.The upper end, where the canal comes to the surface as the lower part of the floor of the fourth ventricle, is the ‘open part’.
4. Medulla contd….. MO is lowest 3 cm of the brainstem •it extend from the ponto- medullary junction until plane below foramina magnum for about 0.5 cm. •Medulla spinalis have a central canal which prolonged into its lower half to open in the fourth ventricle at its upper half. •CSF is encircle the MO from outside ( subarachnoid space ) and inside ( central canal ). •MO is between the two lobes of cerebellum ( anterior cerebellar notch )
5. EXTERNAL FEATURES AND RELATIONS • 3Cm long. • Located at the caudal portion of brainstem • Upper limit is cerebello-pontine angle • Transverse plane that above C1 (suboccipital) intersects upper border of atlas dorsally and centre of dens ventrally marks lower limit
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8. LATERAL ASPECT • Roots of glossopharyngeal , vagus and cranial division of accessory nerves are attached to the medulla dorsal to olive.
9. Dorsal surface At dorsal surface of closed part of medulla, gracile and cuneate fasciculi continue from the spinal
Spinal cord
The spinal cord extends from the skull to the lumbar vertebrae and contains gray matter in an H-shaped arrangement. It provides bidirectional communication between the brain and body via ascending and descending tracts. The spinal cord is protected within vertebrae and surrounded by meninges including the dura, arachnoid, and pia mater.
Spinal cord & its tracts II (Descending tracts)
This document summarizes the descending tracts of the spinal cord, which transmit signals from the brain to the spinal cord. It describes the major descending tracts, including the corticospinal, reticulospinal, tectospinal, rubrospinal, vestibulospinal, and olivospinal tracts. It provides details on the origin, pathway, termination, and functions of each tract. The document also briefly discusses intersegmental tracts, decerebrate rigidity, and Renshaw cells.
Commissural fibres
Corpus callosum.
Anterior commissure.
Posterior commissure.
Hippocampal commissure.
Habenular commissure.
Cerebellum-Connections and Functions
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of the cerebellum. It describes the cerebellum's connections to other parts of the brain and its divisions. The cerebellum receives input from various pathways and sends output through several nuclei to control muscle tone, coordinate movement, balance, equilibrium, and speech. It plays an important role in motor learning and planning sequential movements.
Brodmann's areas of the cerebral cortex
This document summarizes the functional anatomy of the cerebral hemispheres. It describes the six layers of the cerebral cortex and areas related to somatosensory, motor, visual, auditory, and olfactory functions. It discusses association areas including the parietooccipitotemporal area, prefrontal cortex, Wernicke's area, and angular gyrus. It also briefly mentions control of eye movements, face recognition, speech processing, and functions of the non-dominant hemisphere.
Cerebral cortex ppt
The cerebral cortex is a thin sheet of neural tissue that surrounds the cerebrum. It plays a key role in functions like memory, awareness, language, and consciousness. It is divided into two hemispheres and four lobes. It has six layers and is made up of grey matter on the inside and white matter on the outside. The cortex contains several functional areas including sensory, motor, and associated areas. The sensory areas process somatosensation, vision, hearing, smell, and taste. The motor areas control voluntary movement. The associated areas integrate information for functions like cognition and language.
The cerebral hemispheres - Gross Anatomy & Connections
This slides helps you to understand the gross anatomy of cerebral hemispheres, functions & their connections with one lobe to another lobe..
Ascending tracts
1) The document describes the ascending sensory tracts that carry sensations from the body to the brain. It focuses on the dorsal column-medial lemniscal system and the anterolateral system.
2) The dorsal column tract carries fine touch, vibration, and proprioception. It ascends ipsilaterally in the spinal cord and crosses over in the medulla before terminating in the thalamus.
3) The anterolateral system includes the ventral and lateral spinothalamic tracts. The ventral tract carries crude touch and the lateral tract carries pain and temperature. They both cross over in the spinal cord and ascend to the thalamus.
Pyramidal Tract
The document summarizes the descending motor tracts that transmit signals from the brain to lower motor neurons and muscles. It focuses on the pyramidal tracts, including the corticospinal tract which controls voluntary limb movement, and corticobulbar tract which controls head and neck muscles. The corticospinal tract originates in motor areas of the cortex and projects through the brainstem and spinal cord. The corticobulbar tract projects to motor nuclei controlling cranial nerves.
NEUROANATOMY - I
The document provides an overview of neuroanatomy, beginning with the divisions of the nervous system into the central and peripheral nervous systems. It then describes the structures and components of the central nervous system in detail, including the brainstem, cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Key topics covered include the meninges, ventricular system, blood supply, ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex.
Cerebrum
The document describes the anatomy and functional areas of the cerebrum. It notes that the cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum. It is further divided into four lobes - frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital - by sulci including the central sulcus. The document outlines the motor, sensory, auditory, visual, and other functional areas located within the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes and their functions. It also describes the sulci, gyri, and structures located on the three surfaces and inferior surface of the cerebrum.
Cerebrum
The document summarizes key aspects of the cerebrum and cerebral hemispheres. It describes the cerebrum as the largest part of the brain, located in the anterior and middle cranial fossa. It notes that the cerebral hemispheres are separated by a longitudinal cerebral fissure and connected by the corpus callosum. It then outlines the lobes of the cerebral hemispheres and some of the main sulci and gyri on the surface of each lobe.
motor cortex
This document summarizes the cortical and brain stem control of motor function. It discusses how the motor cortex, premotor area, and supplementary motor area initiate voluntary movements by activating patterns stored in lower brain areas like the brain stem and cerebellum. These lower centers then send control signals to muscles. It describes areas of the motor cortex and their functions, as well as pathways involving the brain stem, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and spinal cord that integrate to control motor functions. Damage to different areas can impact speech, eye and head movements, and dexterity.
Pons Anatomy
Dr. Mehul Tandel
Assistant Professor
Anatomy Department
Pramukhswami Medical College
Karamsad, Gujarat
Tracts
This document summarizes the major ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord and brainstem that transmit sensory and motor information. It describes the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway and anterolateral system, which are the main conscious sensory tracts transmitting touch, proprioception, vibration, pain and temperature. It also discusses the spinocerebellar tracts that transmit unconscious proprioceptive information to the cerebellum. On the motor side, it outlines the pyramidal tracts including the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts, as well as the extrapyramidal tracts that control posture, balance and locomotion.
corticobulbar tract
The corticobulbar tract is composed of fibers that pass from the motor cortex to motor neurons in the trigeminal, facial, and hyoglossal nuclei in the brainstem. The fibers originate from pyramidal neurons in layer V of the cerebral cortex and travel through the internal capsule and cerebral peduncle to descend with the corticospinal tract in the pons and medulla. The corticobulbar tract is responsible for voluntary control of muscles of the larynx, pharynx, palate, face, jaw, and eyes. Damage to the tracts can result in pseudobulbar palsy, characterized by paralysis or weakness of muscles that control swallowing, talking, tongue,
Corticospinal tract (Pyramidal tract)
here i am to explain the Anatomy and physiology of part of the Pyramidal tract, that is the corticospinal tract. I also added the clinical significance of corticospinal tract. The course of the corticospinal tract are well explained.
Basal ganglia
The document provides an overview of the basal ganglia. It discusses the physiological anatomy and components of the basal ganglia, including the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. It describes the connections and functional neuronal circuits of the basal ganglia. The functions of the basal ganglia in motor control and disorders such as Parkinson's disease, chorea, athetosis, and Huntington's disease are summarized.
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The cerebral hemispheres - Gross Anatomy & Connections
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Cns 6
The document discusses the structure and function of the cerebral cortex. It describes that motor and sensory areas are localized in discrete cortical domains, while higher functions like memory and language have overlapping domains. It then focuses on motor areas of the cortex, describing the primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, Broca's area, and their functions in controlling voluntary movement. Finally, it discusses descending motor pathways from the cortex to the spinal cord, including the direct pyramidal tracts and indirect extrapyramidal tracts.
Motor system
The motor system consists of lower and upper motor neurons.
Lower motor neurons originate in the spinal cord and brainstem and directly innervate skeletal muscles, controlling movement. Upper motor neurons originate in the motor cortex and brainstem and project to lower motor neurons.
Upper motor neurons are involved in encoding movement intention, expressing emotions, skilled motor behavior, and setting the gain of reflexes through pathways like the corticospinal tract. Damage results in spasticity and hyperreflexia, while sparing muscle strength.
1)introduction to clinical neurology.pptx
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. The brain is made up of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The cerebrum is divided into four lobes in each hemisphere which control functions like movement, sensation, language, and vision. The brainstem regulates vital functions and connects the brain to the spinal cord. The spinal cord contains pathways for motor and sensory signals throughout the body. Damage to different parts of the nervous system results in distinct clinical presentations depending on the location and type of affected neurons.
Motor cortex areas and physiology of stroke
The motor cortex controls voluntary movement. It contains four main areas - the primary motor cortex, premotor area, supplementary motor area, and some specialized areas. The primary motor cortex directly controls fine skilled movements and facilitates stretch reflexes. The premotor area produces large muscle group movements. The supplementary motor area programs complex motor activity. Specialized areas include Broca's area for speech and the frontal eye field for eye movements. Damage to motor areas or their connections causes upper motor neuron signs like spasticity, hyperreflexia, and weakness due to loss of fine movement control. Damage to lower motor neurons in the spinal cord or periphery causes flaccid paralysis, wasting, and fasciculations.
Motor function of brain and brain stem ms 2017 dentist
The presence of ataxia suggests damage to any of the following EXCEPT:
B. Thalamus
Ataxia is a lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that is typically associated with cerebellar dysfunction. The thalamus is not directly involved in motor coordination, so damage to the thalamus would not directly cause ataxia. The other options - cerebellum, vestibular nucleus, and vagal nerve - are all involved in motor coordination and their damage could cause ataxia.
Pyramida and extrapyramidal tracts
This document discusses motor neurophysiology and motor control pathways in the central nervous system. It begins by describing the hierarchy of motor control areas in the cortex, including the primary motor cortex, premotor area, and supplementary motor area. It then discusses the descending motor pathways, dividing them into direct pathways like the pyramidal tracts and indirect extrapyramidal pathways. The main pathways discussed are the lateral corticospinal tract, rubrospinal tract, reticulospinal tract, and vestibulospinal tract. The functions and locations of termination of these tracts are described. Clinical features of upper and lower motor neuron lesions are also summarized.
Motor system2 pathways
The motor system begins with the motor cortex located in the frontal lobe. Within the motor cortex, different areas control different parts of the body in a somatotopic map called the motor homunculus. The primary motor cortex contains Betz cells whose axons form the corticospinal tract which descends through the internal capsule and brainstem to synapse on alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord. Secondary motor areas like the premotor and supplementary motor areas help plan and coordinate movements that are executed through the primary motor cortex and corticospinal tract. Both upper motor neurons from the cortex and lower motor neurons initiate muscle contraction through motor units consisting of an alpha motor neuron and innervated muscle fibers.
Movement II
The brain controls movement through a hierarchy with three levels - strategy, tactics, and execution. The highest level of strategy is in the neocortex and basal ganglia. Tactics are handled by the motor cortex and cerebellum. Execution occurs via signals from the brainstem and spinal cord to muscles. Sensory feedback is essential at each level. Voluntary movement involves cortical areas planning strategies that activate the basal ganglia and cerebellum to initiate and coordinate movement signals sent to the spinal cord.
Introduction to motor systems
Upper motor neurons in the motor cortex and brainstem initiate and direct voluntary movements. Basal ganglia gate proper movement initiation while the cerebellum coordinates sensory and motor signals for ongoing movement. Lower motor neurons in the spinal cord integrate signals and innervate skeletal muscles. There is somatotopy in the spinal cord with more proximal muscles represented medially and distal muscles laterally. Motor units comprise a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates. Slow motor units generate less force slowly while fast units generate more force but fatigue rapidly.
Pyramidal system
Pyramidal system.Upper motor neuron,Corticospinal tract,
Corticobulbar tract,Giant pyramidal cells ,reticular formation ,
Babinski sign ,
somatomotor system.pptx
The somatomotor system is organized in a 3-tier hierarchical system, with the highest level in the cerebral cortex, middle level in subcortical structures like the basal ganglia and cerebellum, and lowest level in the spinal cord and brainstem. The motor cortex plans voluntary movements and issues commands to the spinal cord via pyramidal tracts. Basal ganglia and cerebellum help coordinate skilled movements and maintain posture and tone. Spinal motor neurons innervate skeletal muscles to enable movement. Proprioceptive feedback integrates signals across these levels of the motor system.
Motor pathways
1. There are two main types of somatic motor pathways - direct and indirect. Direct pathways transmit signals from the cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons, while indirect pathways involve additional structures like the basal ganglia and cerebellum.
2. Direct pathways include the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. Indirect pathways include the rubrospinal, tectospinal, vestibulospinal, lateral reticulospinal, and medial reticulospinal tracts.
3. Together these pathways coordinate voluntary and involuntary muscle movements through connections with lower motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord.
Nervous system:Part VI
The document summarizes key aspects of the cerebellum and brainstem. It discusses how the cerebellum consists of 300 million functional units arranged in cerebellar nuclei that coordinate movement. It also describes how the brainstem is important as it contains sensory and motor tracts, respiratory centers, and the reticular activating system. Finally, it provides an overview of the 12 cranial nerves, outlining their functions and origins/destinations.
Physiology of movement
The document summarizes the physiology of human movement. It discusses how distinct areas of the brain plan, execute, and provide feedback for movements. The motor cortex, brainstem, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and spinal cord all contribute to different types of movement like postural control, ambulation, and reaching/grasping. Descending pathways like the corticospinal tract transmit signals from the motor cortex to the spinal cord to control muscle activation. Sensory feedback through pathways like the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway provides information to coordinate movement.
Histology of Nervous system
The document provides information about the nervous system. It discusses the central nervous system including the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord contains gray matter with neurons and white matter with nerve fibers. The brainstem relays signals between the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system, controlling vital functions. The cerebellum coordinates motor control through integration of sensory input. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain involved in higher functions like thinking, language, and memory. Diagrams and pictures are included to illustrate these structures.
NEURO PHYSIOLOGY LECTURES.pptx
This document provides an overview of neurophysiology and various parts of the central nervous system. It discusses the brain stem and its three parts - medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. It then explains the reticular formation and its role in regulating states of consciousness. The document also reviews the cerebellum's anatomical structures and functions in motor control. The basal nuclei and limbic system are listed but not described. Overall, the document summarizes key areas and functions of the brain stem, reticular formation, and cerebellum.
Cerebellum Physiology
The cerebellum plays an important role in motor control and coordination. It receives input from various sources, including the spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebral cortex. This input is processed within the cerebellar cortex and nuclei. The cerebellum then sends output to motor areas of the brainstem and cerebral cortex to coordinate movement, balance, and posture. It acts as a comparator, receiving feedback on actual movements and comparing them to intended movements, in order to calibrate motor output and prevent overshooting during voluntary motor acts such as walking and running. Damage to the cerebellum can cause ataxia or lack of coordination.
Cerebellum physiology
The cerebellum is located behind the brainstem and contains only 10% of the brain's volume. It receives input from muscles, joints, and the motor cortex, and provides corrective signals to the motor cortex to coordinate voluntary movement. The cerebellum evaluates and adjusts motor movements, integrating sensory information to ensure balance and motor learning. Damage to different parts of the cerebellum results in difficulties with coordination, posture, movement timing and sequencing.
physiology of spinal cord.pptx
The spinal cord is a long, cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers that extends from the base of the brain down to the lower back. It plays a crucial role in the central nervous system (CNS) and serves as a pathway for communication between the brain and the rest of the body. The physiology of the spinal cord involves various functions, including sensory and motor processing, reflexes, and coordination of movements. Here are some key aspects of spinal cord physiology
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Motor function of brain and brain stem ms 2017 dentist
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Tetrodotoxin
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ECG S
1) The Sgarbossa criteria provide guidelines for diagnosing acute myocardial infarction in patients with left bundle branch block (LBB) or ventricular paced rhythm on electrocardiogram (ECG), as these conditions can obscure ECG changes.
2) The original Sgarbossa criteria included three criteria involving concordant or discordant ST segment changes greater than 1mm. The modified criteria expanded this to include proportionally excessive discordant ST elevation.
3) Different types of STEMI are described based on the location of maximal ST elevation, including anterior, inferior, lateral, posterior, and right ventricular STEMI, each with characteristic ECG patterns.
ECG I
This document discusses interventricular conduction delay and raised intracranial pressure as seen on electrocardiograms (ECGs). It defines interventricular conduction delay and lists various causes including fascicular blocks, bundle branch blocks, ventricular hypertrophy, dilatation, electrolyte abnormalities, toxins, pre-excitation, and arrhythmogenic cardiac conditions. It then discusses raised intracranial pressure and the associated ECG findings of widespread T-wave inversions, QT prolongation, and bradycardia as part of the Cushing reflex, indicating imminent brainstem herniation. Massive intracranial hemorrhages such as subarachnoid hemorrhage are the most common causes
ECG H
The document discusses various electrolyte abnormalities and their ECG manifestations, including hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesia, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and hypothermia. For each condition, it provides the normal and abnormal ranges for the electrolyte levels and describes the associated ECG changes such as peaked T waves, QT prolongation, low QRS voltage, bradycardia, and arrhythmias. The document serves as a reference for clinicians to recognize ECG patterns caused by electrolyte and endocrine abnormalities.
ECG F
1) Fascicular ventricular tachycardia is the most common form of idiopathic ventricular tachycardia originating from the left ventricle. It typically presents in young patients without structural heart disease.
2) It has characteristic ECG features including a monomorphic ventricular rhythm with fusion complexes and AV dissociation. The QRS duration is between 100-140 ms with a short RS interval of 60-80 ms. It also shows a right bundle branch block pattern and axis deviation.
3) Posterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia, which arises near the left posterior fascicle, shows a right bundle branch block pattern with left axis deviation. Anterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia arises
ECG E
The document discusses several electrocardiogram (ECG) findings and rhythms including ectopic atrial tachycardia, atrial tachycardia, electrical alternans seen in massive pericardial effusion which produces low QRS voltage, electrical alternans and tachycardia, escape rhythms like junctional escape rhythms where the pacemaker rate decreases down the conducting system, and ventricular escape rhythms. It also discusses the terminology of junctional rhythms and includes literature references.
ECG D
The document discusses De Winter's T waves, which are characterized by three key findings on ECG: upsloping ST depression in precordial leads, tall symmetric T waves in precordial leads, and ST elevation in aVR. It also summarizes the ECG patterns seen in dextrocardia, including right axis deviation, positive complexes in aVR, and dominant S waves in precordial leads. Finally, it outlines the ECG features of digoxin effect and toxicity, such as biphasic T waves, shortened QT, and the dysrhythmia of supraventricular tachycardia with a slow ventricular response seen in digoxin toxicity.
ECG C
Massive carbamazepine overdose of more than 50 mg/kg can cause cardiotoxicity due to sodium channel blockade, which may be detectable on ECG as subtle QRS widening or first-degree AV block. Dilated cardiomyopathy is characterized by ventricular dilatation and reduced ejection fraction below 40%, commonly presenting with symptoms of biventricular failure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can cause prominent P waves in inferior leads, exaggerated ST segments, low QRS voltage especially in V4-V6, and may show an SV1-SV2-SV3 pattern.
ECG B
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- Beta-blocker and calcium channel blocker toxicity can cause prolonged PR interval and bradycardia. Propranolol toxicity specifically causes QRS widening and positive R' wave in aVR. Sotalol toxicity causes QT prolongation and risk of Torsades de Pointes.
- Bifascicular block is a combination of right bundle branch block with either left anterior or posterior fascicular block, and can be caused by ischemia, hypertension or other
ECG A: AVNRT, AVRT
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ECG A: AV blocks
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ECG A: first part.
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2. Atrial flutter, a supraventricular tachycardia caused by a reentry circuit in the right atrium with a rate of around 300 bpm. The ventricular rate is determined by AV conduction.
3. Atrial fibrillation, the most common sustained arrhythmia characterized by irregularly irregular rhythm without
Cardiorenal syndrome
1) Cardiorenal syndrome commonly occurs in patients with acute decompensated heart failure and is associated with poor outcomes. It involves a complex interaction between hemodynamic alterations and activation of neurohormonal systems that affects both the heart and kidneys.
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Categorization of risks and benefits (food additives)
The document discusses various categories of risks associated with food, including foodborne hazards of microbial origin, nutritional hazards, environmental contaminants, naturally occurring toxicants, and food additives. It notes that foodborne diseases of microbial origin pose the greatest risks. Nutritional hazards can arise from deficiencies or excesses. Environmental contaminants can enter the food supply from industrial or natural sources. Naturally occurring toxicants are found in some foods. Food additives present minimal risks when consumed within permitted levels. The document also outlines categories of potential benefits from foods, including health benefits, supply benefits, hedonic benefits, and convenience benefits.
Benefits and risks of additives
This document discusses the benefits and risks of food additives. The benefits include making foods safer, more nutritious, and longer lasting through the use of preservatives and antioxidants. Additives also provide greater variety of foods and lower prices. However, there are also risks. There is a lack of data on the long term health effects of combinations of additives. Some additives are associated with "junk foods" that are low in nutrients. While direct toxic effects are unlikely at legal levels, some individuals may have hypersensitivity reactions. Some animal studies also indicate potential cancer and reproductive issues, but no direct evidence in humans. The risks must be weighed against the benefits on a case by case basis.
Types of food additives
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This document discusses antibody-mediated and T cell-mediated drug hypersensitivity. It describes how drugs can act as haptens and stimulate T and B cell responses, leading to IgE production and immediate hypersensitivity reactions. It also discusses the p-i concept where drugs can directly interact with T cell receptors and cause reactions without prior sensitization, particularly in the skin which contains many resident immune cells.
T cell stimulation by drugs
1. Small molecule drugs can become immunogenic by undergoing bioactivation into chemically reactive metabolites that covalently bind to proteins, forming hapten-carrier complexes.
2. These complexes are then processed and presented by antigen presenting cells to T cells, stimulating an adaptive immune response.
3. Whether a humoral or cellular immune response develops depends on which proteins are modified by the hapten and whether they are soluble or cell-bound.
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Primary motor cortex
- 1. Primary motor cortex Domina Petric, MD
- 2. Upper motor neurons (descending systems): a) Motor cortex (planing, initiating and directing voluntary movements) b) Brainstem centers (basic movements and postural control) Basal ganglia: gating proper initiation of movement Cerebellum: sensory motor coordination and ongoing movement Local circuit neurons: lower motor neuron integration Motor neuron pools: lower motor neurons Sceletal muscles Sensory inputs
- 3. Motor cortex • It is concerned with encoding the movement intention. • Motor cortex includes precentral gyrus and posterior parts of superior, middle and inferior frontal gyri. • Motor cortex is mostly concerned with voluntary movements, but it is also related to behaviors that are concerned with expression of emotions. • So, the motor cortex is also concerned with non-verbal communication (facial gestures, body posture). • Brainstem motor centers are concerned with adjustment of posture, with setting the gain of segmental reflexes and it is important for expressing the skill.
- 5. Spinal cord • Lateral corticospinal tract provides axons that are mostly concerned with governing the control of distal extremity muscles. • Axons in the lateral white matter come from motor cortex. • Lateral corticospinal tract is associated primarily with skills. • Axons in the ventral and medial white matter of the spinal cord come from the brainstem. • These ventromedial spinal cord axons terminate in the medial parts of the ventral horn so these axons are concerned with governing the control of the proximal extremity muscles and posture. • Ventromedial spinal cord white matter is mainly concerned with posture.
- 6. Upper motor neurons in cerebral cortex Lateral white matter of spinal cord Lower motor neurons in lateral ventral horn Distal limb muscles: skilled movements Upper motor neurons in brainstem Anterior and medial white matter of the spinal cord Lower motor neurons in medial ventral horn Axial and proximal limb muscles: posture and balance Cross the midline! For contralateral limb! Input is distributed to both sides of the spinal cord!
- 7. Volitional movement: descending pyramidal and extrapyramidal projections from motor cortex and brainstem Lateral: fine control of distal muscles of extremities Medial: posture and proximal muscles of extremities Brainstem reticular formation Motor neuron pools Motor neurons of cranial nerve nuclei and ventral horn of the spinal cord Autonomic preganglionic neurons Muscle contraction and movement Activation of smooth muscles and glands Emotional expression: descending extrapyramidal projections from limbic centers of ventro-medial forebrain and hypothalamus Medial: gain setting, rhythmical reflexes Lateral: specific emotional behaviors Pyramidal pathway Corticobulbar pathway
- 8. Motor cortex Motor cortex is divided into: • Primary motor cortex includes the precentral gyrus and paracentral lobule. • Premotor cortex includes posterior parts of the superior, middle and inferior frontal gyri. Thalamic nuclei that send inputs to the motor cortex are VENTRAL ANTERIOR THALAMIC NUCLEUS and VENTRAL LATERAL THALAMIC NUCLEUS (VA-VL COMPLEX OF THE THALAMUS).
- 9. Motor cortex Somatosensory cortex also sends inputs to the motor cortex, both primary motor cortex and premotor cortex. ˝Where˝ (magnocellular) visual pathway sends inputs to the premotor cortex.
- 10. Primary motor cortex (Brodmann´s area 4) Layer 5 in the primary motor cortex (Betz cells) gives rise to spinal cord and brainstem projections: corticospinal and corticobulbar tract. Primary motor cortex has the lowest treshold for the elicitation of movement and it is concerned with those movements that are primarily concerning our body and the space in front of the body.
- 11. Somatotopy http://brainconnection.brainhq.com BUT! Somatotopy of the precentral gyrus is rather fractured!
- 12. Fractured somatotopy There are overlapping representations in the precentral gyrus for flexor and extensor muscles. There are multiple representations of the same body region. There is no internal somatotopy in the region for arm in the precentral gyrus.
- 13. Fractured somatotopy Single corticospinal axon supplies multiple columns of lower motor neurons in ventral horn. Single spike in a corticospinal axon activates many different muscles in the forelimb.
- 14. Representations of the primary motor cortex movements (not muscles) or movement intentions multiple dimensions of movement (force, direction, amplitude) movements that engage hand, lower face and hand to mouth coordination skilled manual behavior in central personal space lesions impair fractionated (skilled) finger-facial movements
- 15. Literature https://www.coursera.org/learn/medical- neuroscience/lecture: Leonard E. White, PhD, Duke University www.studyblue.com http://brainconnection.brainhq.com