This document discusses different types of research designs, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and pre-experimental designs. Experimental designs use random assignment and manipulation of the independent variable. They can be true experiments with control groups or post-test only designs. Quasi-experimental designs lack random assignment but have experimental and control groups, such as non-equivalent group designs. Pre-experimental designs do not manipulate variables or use control groups, including one-shot case studies and one-group pre-test post-test designs. The document provides examples of different research studies that use these designs.
A Research problem is a problem that a researcher wants to solve moreover, it is an issues or a concern that an investigator / researcher presents and justifies in a research study.
Research Objective
Research is an organized investigation of a problem in which there is an attempt to gain solution to a problem.
To get right solution of a right problem, clearly defined objectives are very important.
Clearly defined objectives enlighten the way in which the researcher has to proceed.
What is Research Objective?
A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to investigate the variables.
Generally research objective focus on the ways to measure the variables , such as to identify or describe them.
Sometime objectives are directed towards identifying the relationship or difference between two variables.
Research objective are the results sought by the researcher at the end of the research process, i.e. what the researcher will be able to achieve at the end of the research study.
The objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study.
Objective should be closely related to the statement of the problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Research objectives is a concrete statement describing what the research is trying to achieve. A well-worded objective will be SMART, i.e Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, & Time-bound.
Research objective should be Relevant, Feasible, Logical, Observable, Unequivocal & Measurable.
Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved within the expected timeframe &with the available resources.
The objective or research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.
The research objectives are the specific accomplishment the researchers hopes to achieve by the study
The objective include obtaining answers to research questions or testing the research hypothesis.
Why need Research Objectives?
The formulation of research objectives will help researcher to:
With clearly defined objectives, the researchers can focus on the study.
Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding & solving problem that he or she has defined.
The formulation of objectives organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the development of research methodology & will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation, &utilization of data.
Types of Research Objectives
General Objective
General objectives are broad goals to be achieved.
The general objectives of the study state what the researcher expects to achieve by the study in general terms.
General objectives are usually less in number.
A Research problem is a problem that a researcher wants to solve moreover, it is an issues or a concern that an investigator / researcher presents and justifies in a research study.
Research Objective
Research is an organized investigation of a problem in which there is an attempt to gain solution to a problem.
To get right solution of a right problem, clearly defined objectives are very important.
Clearly defined objectives enlighten the way in which the researcher has to proceed.
What is Research Objective?
A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to investigate the variables.
Generally research objective focus on the ways to measure the variables , such as to identify or describe them.
Sometime objectives are directed towards identifying the relationship or difference between two variables.
Research objective are the results sought by the researcher at the end of the research process, i.e. what the researcher will be able to achieve at the end of the research study.
The objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study.
Objective should be closely related to the statement of the problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Research objectives is a concrete statement describing what the research is trying to achieve. A well-worded objective will be SMART, i.e Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, & Time-bound.
Research objective should be Relevant, Feasible, Logical, Observable, Unequivocal & Measurable.
Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved within the expected timeframe &with the available resources.
The objective or research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.
The research objectives are the specific accomplishment the researchers hopes to achieve by the study
The objective include obtaining answers to research questions or testing the research hypothesis.
Why need Research Objectives?
The formulation of research objectives will help researcher to:
With clearly defined objectives, the researchers can focus on the study.
Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding & solving problem that he or she has defined.
The formulation of objectives organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the development of research methodology & will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation, &utilization of data.
Types of Research Objectives
General Objective
General objectives are broad goals to be achieved.
The general objectives of the study state what the researcher expects to achieve by the study in general terms.
General objectives are usually less in number.
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Research Methods in PsychologyQuasi-Experimental Designs.docxaudeleypearl
Research Methods in Psychology
Quasi-Experimental Designs
1
Characteristics of True Experiments
Manipulate Independent Variable (IV)
Treatment, comparison conditions
High degree of control
Choice of the DVs
Random assignment to conditions
Unambiguous outcome regarding effect of IV on DV
Internal validity
2
Applied Research
Goals
Test external validity of lab findings
Improve conditions in which people live and work (natural settings)
Quasi-experiments
Procedures that approximate the conditions of highly controlled laboratory experiments
3
Permission
Difficult to gain permission to conduct true experiments in natural settings
Difficult to gain access to participants
Random assignment perceived as unfair
People want a “treatment”
Random assignment is best way to determine whether a treatment is effective
Use “waiting-list” control group or alternate treatments
Tablets in English and science classes example
Obstacles to Conducting True Experiments in Natural Settings
4
Advantage of True Experiments
Threats to internal validity are controlled
8 general threats to internal validityhistoryregressionmaturationselectiontestingsubject attritioninstrumentationadditive effects with selection
5
Threats to Internal Validity
History
When an event occurs at the same time as the treatment and changes participants’ behavior
Participants’ “history” includes events other than treatment
Difficult to infer treatment has an effect
6
History Threat, continued
Does a campus recycling awareness campaign influence the amount of paper, plastic, and cans in campus bins?
History threat: Suppose at week 4 (X = treatment) a popular celebrity also starts to promote recycling in the media.
Can you conclude the campus campaign was effective?
7
Series 1 1 2 3 4 X 5 6 7 8 30 35 30 35 40 55 55 60 55
Week
Recycling (Kg)
Threats to Internal Validity, continued
Maturation
Participants naturally change over time.
These maturational changes, not treatment, may explain any changes in participants during an experiment.
8
Maturation Threat, continued
Does a new reading program improve 2nd graders’ reading comprehension?
Reading comprehension improves naturally as children mature over the year.
Can you conclude the reading program was effective?
9
Series 1 Pre Post 25 70
Reading Comprehension
Threats to Internal Validity, continued
Testing
Taking a test generally affects subsequent testing.
Participants’ performance on a measure at the end of a study may differ from an initial testing because of their familiarity with the measure.
10
Testing Threat, continued
Does teaching a new problem solving strategy influence people’s ability to solve problems quickly?
If similar problems are used in the pretest, faster problem solving at post-test may be due to familiarity with the test.
Can we conclude the new strategy improves problem-solving ability?
11
Series 1 Pre Post 12 4
Minutes (Mean)
Threats to Internal Validity, continued
Ins ...
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7. MANIPULATION
Manipulation is the process of
maneuvering the IV, so that its effect
on the dependent variable (D.V) can
be observed/measured.
8. METHOD OF MANIPULATION
Researcher gives intervention to
experimental group and withholds it to the
control group or administers some other
treatment. E.g. Gentle message is effective
as a pain relief measures for elderly.
9. CONTROL
Control is for elimination of bias.
Control group refers to a group of
subjects, whose performance is
used to evaluate the performance
of experimental group on same
D.V.
10. Eg. Effect of nutrient diet on the
weight of premature infant in two
weeks.
Comparison of post intervention
weight with pre-intervention
weight determines the
effectiveness of nutrient diet.
CONTROL
11. The type of experimental design is
determined by the amount of
control the researcher is able to
exercise over the research condition.
CONTROL
12. 1. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1.1 Classic experimental design/pretest-post
test control group design
R O1 x O2 (Experimental group)
R O1 O2 (Control group)
13. Experimental
Group- E
Pre test Treatment (X) Post test (x)
Control group-
C
Pre test Post test (y)
Example
•Tepid sponge (IDV) --> reduction of temperature (DV)
•Paracetomol (IDV) --> reduction of temperature (DV)
COLLECT PRETEST DATA BEFORE RANDOMIZATIONTWO GROUPS
Example of Pre test – Post test Design.
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14. Example of True Experimental Study
Sneha, “Effectiveness of massage on the
selected physiological variables of low
birth weight infants”. In NICU of Bharati
Hospital, Pune, 2010.
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15. 1.2 Post test only
control group design
R X O1 (Experimental group)
R O1 (Control group)
16. Experimental group E Intervention
introduced
X
Level of phenomenon
after intervention (Y)
Control group C Level of phenomenon
without intervention (Z)
Intervention Effect =(Y)-(Z)
Example of Post-Test only Control Group Design
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17. Example of Post Test only Control
Group Design
Vijayakumari G: A study to assess the
effectiveness of structured teaching
program regarding nature and prevention of
accidents among mothers of toddlers in
selected areas of Raichur (2004).
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18. 2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
A quasi experimental design is one in
which experimental and control
(comparison) are present &
randomization is not there.
Ex. Effect of primary Nursing education
on staff morale.
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19. 2.1 Non equivalent control
group design
R O1 X O2
R O 3 O4
Effect = (O2 – O1) – (O4 – O3)
R = Randomization.
O = Observation or measurement
X = Treatment or intervention
20. A researcher might choose a group of patients
with diabetes on one hospital floor for the
experimental group and a group of patients
with diabetes on another floor for the
comparison group. The experimental
treatment would be administered to the
experimental group; the comparison group
would receive no treatment or some alternative
treatment.
21. E.g. A non-equivalent control group design
was used by Valliammal Sudhakar (2008) to
study the knowledge, attitude and practice
towards physical well being of a group of
IV, V, VIth grade students in two different
schools.
22. 2.2 THE TIME SERIES DESIGN
• The time series design, a single group
experiment comprises of series of
observation in the before-time period to
establish a baseline.
• The experimental independent variable is
then introduced,
• Followed by another series of observation to
examine the effect of the independent
variable.
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23. 2.2.1 Time series Design (single group)
Before x After
………...……………………………………...
E O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 x O6 O7 O8 O9 10
………………………………………………
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24. 2.2.2 The Multiple Time Series Design
Time series non equivalent control group design
(QED)
Before x After
………………………………………………………..
E O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 x O6 O7 O8 O9 10
………………………………………………………………………………………
C O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 - O6 O7 O8 O9 10
……………………………………………………………………………
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25. A researcher might assess the pain levels
of a group of patients with low back pain.
After 3 weeks of pain assessment, intervention
will be introduced
(O1 O2 O3 x O4 O5 O6).
The results of this study would help the
researcher to determine if a specific exercise
is effective in reducing low back pain.
26. 3. PRE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Pre experimental design: are
discussed to provide examples
of how not to do research.
27. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS:
3.1 The one-shot case study or single case study
In single case study, that studies at once, following a
treatment or an agent presumed to cause change.
Because the study design has a total absence of
control; it is considered to be little value as an
experiment
X----------------O
X= independent variables or stimulus
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28. ONE-SHOT CASE STUDY
Lalitha, Premila & Balu (2006) conducted a
study on nursing personnel registered for a
day workshop on life skill education at
MTIHS, Pondicherry.
29. 3.2 ONE GROUP PRE-TEST AND
POST-TEST DESIGN
• Here only one group is observed before and
after the independent variable is
introduced.
• Loss of the control group decreases the
usefulness of the study but may be
necessary in cases where it is not possible
or feasible to have control groups
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30. E.g. Sailaxmi Gandhi(2006) conducted
a pre-experimental study to assess
the effectiveness of stress
management programme on the
selected variables of nurses working
in psychiatric wards at NIMHANS,
Bangalore.
48. CONCLUSION
• Quantitative research approach is the
commonest
• Replication is possible
• Data analysis is easy
• Researcher’s subjectivity is minimal
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