This document discusses various research designs used in nursing research. It defines research design as the plan or blueprint for conducting a study. Experimental designs aim to identify cause-effect relationships through manipulation of independent variables and use of control groups. True experiments allow the highest level of control but quasi-experiments and pre-experimental designs are also used when true experiments are not possible. Non-experimental designs observe variables without manipulation and are used when variables cannot be manipulated or experiments would be unethical.
A pilot study as on experimental exploratory, test , preliminary , trial or try out investigation.
A trial study carried out before a research design is finalized to assist in defining the research questions or to test the feasibility, reliability and validity of proposed study design.
A small scale study conducted to test the plan and method of a research study.
RESEARCH APPROACH AND DESIGN
it include-
1) Research design
2) Classification of research design
3) Quantitative and Qualitative research approach and its difference
4) experimental, non-experimental research design with detailed
5) validity of research design (internal and external validity)
6) threats of internal and external validity of research design.
Slides prepared for beginners of nursing research or novice researchers. it will enhance and clear there basic understanding about using research designs.
A pilot study as on experimental exploratory, test , preliminary , trial or try out investigation.
A trial study carried out before a research design is finalized to assist in defining the research questions or to test the feasibility, reliability and validity of proposed study design.
A small scale study conducted to test the plan and method of a research study.
RESEARCH APPROACH AND DESIGN
it include-
1) Research design
2) Classification of research design
3) Quantitative and Qualitative research approach and its difference
4) experimental, non-experimental research design with detailed
5) validity of research design (internal and external validity)
6) threats of internal and external validity of research design.
Slides prepared for beginners of nursing research or novice researchers. it will enhance and clear there basic understanding about using research designs.
Hisrorical evelotion and trends in nursing researchdeepakkv1991
AS AN NURSE THIS IS MY CONTRIBUTION TO ALL MY FELLOW NURSES SO THAT THEY GET AN OPPORTUNITY TO UNDERSTAND AND LEARN ABOUT THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING AND FUTURE TRENDS IN NURSING.
Descriptive statistics offer nurse researchers valuable options for analysing and pre-senting large and complex sets of data, suggests Christine Hallett
Qualitative research is a systematic, interactive, subjective, approach used to describe life experience and give them meaning where as quantitative research is a formal, objective systematic process to describe, test relationships and examine cause and effect interaction among variables.
Hisrorical evelotion and trends in nursing researchdeepakkv1991
AS AN NURSE THIS IS MY CONTRIBUTION TO ALL MY FELLOW NURSES SO THAT THEY GET AN OPPORTUNITY TO UNDERSTAND AND LEARN ABOUT THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING AND FUTURE TRENDS IN NURSING.
Descriptive statistics offer nurse researchers valuable options for analysing and pre-senting large and complex sets of data, suggests Christine Hallett
Qualitative research is a systematic, interactive, subjective, approach used to describe life experience and give them meaning where as quantitative research is a formal, objective systematic process to describe, test relationships and examine cause and effect interaction among variables.
Research Methods in PsychologyQuasi-Experimental Designs.docxaudeleypearl
Research Methods in Psychology
Quasi-Experimental Designs
1
Characteristics of True Experiments
Manipulate Independent Variable (IV)
Treatment, comparison conditions
High degree of control
Choice of the DVs
Random assignment to conditions
Unambiguous outcome regarding effect of IV on DV
Internal validity
2
Applied Research
Goals
Test external validity of lab findings
Improve conditions in which people live and work (natural settings)
Quasi-experiments
Procedures that approximate the conditions of highly controlled laboratory experiments
3
Permission
Difficult to gain permission to conduct true experiments in natural settings
Difficult to gain access to participants
Random assignment perceived as unfair
People want a “treatment”
Random assignment is best way to determine whether a treatment is effective
Use “waiting-list” control group or alternate treatments
Tablets in English and science classes example
Obstacles to Conducting True Experiments in Natural Settings
4
Advantage of True Experiments
Threats to internal validity are controlled
8 general threats to internal validityhistoryregressionmaturationselectiontestingsubject attritioninstrumentationadditive effects with selection
5
Threats to Internal Validity
History
When an event occurs at the same time as the treatment and changes participants’ behavior
Participants’ “history” includes events other than treatment
Difficult to infer treatment has an effect
6
History Threat, continued
Does a campus recycling awareness campaign influence the amount of paper, plastic, and cans in campus bins?
History threat: Suppose at week 4 (X = treatment) a popular celebrity also starts to promote recycling in the media.
Can you conclude the campus campaign was effective?
7
Series 1 1 2 3 4 X 5 6 7 8 30 35 30 35 40 55 55 60 55
Week
Recycling (Kg)
Threats to Internal Validity, continued
Maturation
Participants naturally change over time.
These maturational changes, not treatment, may explain any changes in participants during an experiment.
8
Maturation Threat, continued
Does a new reading program improve 2nd graders’ reading comprehension?
Reading comprehension improves naturally as children mature over the year.
Can you conclude the reading program was effective?
9
Series 1 Pre Post 25 70
Reading Comprehension
Threats to Internal Validity, continued
Testing
Taking a test generally affects subsequent testing.
Participants’ performance on a measure at the end of a study may differ from an initial testing because of their familiarity with the measure.
10
Testing Threat, continued
Does teaching a new problem solving strategy influence people’s ability to solve problems quickly?
If similar problems are used in the pretest, faster problem solving at post-test may be due to familiarity with the test.
Can we conclude the new strategy improves problem-solving ability?
11
Series 1 Pre Post 12 4
Minutes (Mean)
Threats to Internal Validity, continued
Ins ...
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Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
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Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
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2. Definition
The research design is the plan, structure,
and strategy of investigations for answering
the research question .
It is the overall plan or blue print the
researchers select to carry out their study.
3. Purpose of Research Design
According to Kerlinger, The research
design has two purposes;
1. To provide answer to research
question
2. To control variance.
4. Elements of Research Design
A good research design includes several
elements:-
1. Description of subjects (who)
2. Observation of variable (what)
3. Measures of time (when)
4. Selection of setting(where)
5. Role of the investigator
6. Control over the Independent
Variable
True experimental
Quasi experimental
Pre-experimental
7. Experimental research designs
Identifies cause-effect relationships
Researchers are active agents, Not Passive
observers
Answer questions about the effectiveness of
interventions.
Gold standard for evidence based practice.
9. Characteristics of true
experiments
Manipulation: Experimenter does something to at
least some subjects
Control: Experimenter introduces controls over the
experimental situation including use of a control
group
Randomization: Experimenter assigns subjects to a
control or experimental group on a random basis
11. 1. Pretest- posttest design
(before-after design)
Most commonly used
Two randomized groups
One group receives the experimental treatment
Other group receiving no treatment, a placebo
treatment, or the usual treatment
12. Comparison of the pretest scores allows
evaluation of the effectiveness of
randomization
Treatment is under the control of the
researcher
The dependent variable is measured twice,
before & after the manipulation of the
independent variable
Comparison of the posttest scores allows
determining the effect of the independent
variable
14. Impact of an adaptation training program
for patients with end stage renal disease.
Shiow, Yuh & Ching Lee (2005)
57 patients randomly assigned to two
groups
Intervention: Adaptation training program:
group sessions over 8 week period &
monthly follow up
Control group received usual care
Outcome measure: QOL, HD stressor scale,
depression inventory, medical outcomes at
0 & 3 months
15. Effectiveness of accupressure in improving
dyspnea in COPD patients
44 patients randomly assigned to two groups
Intervention: True accupoint pressure, 5 sessions
per week & 16 minutes per session. 20 sessions
over 4 weeks period
Control group: Routine treatment
Outcome measure: Pulmonary function status,
dyspnea questionnaire, anxiety & 6 minute walk
test, at 0 & 4 wks
16. 2. Posttest only design
(after-only design)
Group Pretest Intervention Posttest
R C O
R E X O
17. Effect of a new educational strategy on students’
attitudes towards patients
Reduces the effect of pretest sensitization
18. 3. Solomon four group design
Involves two experimental groups & two control
groups
One experimental & one control group are
administered pretest & other groups are not
Allows the effects of pretest measure &
intervention to be segregated
20. 4. Factorial design
Used to manipulate two or more independent
variables simultaneously
Independent Variables - Factors
Each factor – levels (two or more)
Treatment condition – cell (Box)
Designs - 2 x 2, 2 x 3, 3 x 3, 3 x 4
22. Factorial design (2X3)
Intervention for pain relief in cancer patients
Relaxation
A1
Music therapy
A2
Once daily
B1
A1 B1 A2 B1
Twice daily
B2
A1 B2 A2 B2
Thrice daily
B3
A1 B3 A2 B3
23. 5. Randomized Block Design
Looks like factorial design in structure.
Two factors (independent variables) but one
factor not experimentally manipulated e.g.
tactile verses auditory stimulation for male
verses female infants, structure 2x2
experiment.
Type of stimulation one factor & gender as
the other.
24. ▪ Variable gender, cannot be manipulated, blocking
variable
▪ Male & female subjects are randomly assigned to
two stimulation methods.
▪ Inclusion of blocking variable enhances
researcher’s control over sample composition.
▪ Gender confounding variable, male & female
infants will respond differently to two therapies
26. 6. Crossover design
(Repeated measure or counterbalanced design)
Involves exposure of same subjects to more than
one experimental treatment
Subjects are randomly assigned to different
orderings of treatment
Subjects serve as their own control
Extremely powerful design but inappropriate for
certain types of research due to problem of
carry-over effects
27. Effects of soy protein rich diet on renal
function in young adults with insulin
dependent DM. Stephenson et al (2005)
12 Type I DM patients
4 weeks assessment of baseline data
Assigned to soy or control diet for 8
weeks
Crossed over to alternative diet for 8
wks
Outcome measures: GFR, LDL
cholesterol, urinary excretion of soy
isofavones at the end of each 8 wk
period
28. Experimental condition
(formal protocol)
What is the intervention? How does it differ from
usual methods of care?
If there are two alternative interventions, how
exactly do they differ?
What are the specific procedures to be used with
those receiving the intervention?
What is the dosage or intensity of the intervention
29. Over how long a period will the intervention be
administered, how frequently it will be
administered, and when will the treatment
begin?
Who will administer the intervention? What
are their credentials, and what type of special
training will they receive?
Under what conditions will the intervention be
withdrawn or altered?
30. Control condition
Control group condition used as a basis of comparison
in a study is referred to as the counterfactual
An alternative intervention
A placebo or psuedo intervention presumed to have no
therapeutic value
Standard methods of care
Different doses or intensities of treatment
Delayed treatment
31. Needs to be as carefully spelt out as the
intervention
Explain what the condition was & how different it
was from the intervention being tested
32. Strength of experiments:-
▪ True experiments are most powerful
method.
▪ Yield the highest quality evidence
▪ Can predict, control, infer causal
relationships
33. Experimental limitations:-
• Criticized for their artificiality
• Focus on handful of variable- all other
constant
• Little control on research environments.
• Hawthorn effect, placebo effect.
35. Quasi experiments
Like true experiments, involve the manipulation of an
IV, i.e. an intervention
However these designs lack randomization to
treatment groups
Facilitate search for knowledge & examination of
causality in situations in which complete control is not
possible
Developed to control as many threats to validity as
possible
36. 1. Non equivalent control group
pretest posttest design
Pretest Intervention Posttest
O1 X O2
O1 O2
37. Non equivalent control group
pretest posttest design
Introduce QAM model in one hospital & study its impact on job
satisfaction of nurses
Use job satisfaction of nurses in another similar hospital as
comparison
If two groups are similar on pretest we could be relatively
confident that the difference in posttest is a result of the
intervention
In quasi experiments the term comparison group is used in lieu of
control group
38. 2. Non equivalent control group posttest only
design
Intervention Posttest
X O
O
39. Non equivalent control group posttest only
design
Suppose if we are unable to collect pretest data in the last
study our design will have a flaw which is difficult to
remedy
We no longer have the information about the initial
equivalence of the two groups
If we find the job satisfaction in the exp group lower we
would conclude that the introduction of the model caused
this.
There could be an alternate explanation for the posttest
differences
40. 4.Time series design-
interrupted time series design
Information is collected over an extended period & an
intervention is introduced during that period
Maintaining consistency in record keeping etc can be a
problematic
Can have problem of attrition
Seasonal variations or other cyclical influences can be
interpreted as treatment effects
Even small numbers of measurement points can provide
better information than cross sectional studies
42. Effect of foot massage on two phases of post
op CABG patients.
On 2nd post op day after extubation
Pretest Posttest
O1 X O2 O3 O4 O5
Outcome measure: HR, RR, BP, Pain Relaxation before
& at 0, 5, 10, 15 min
43. Effect of a stimulation program on
development of LBW babies
44. 5. Time series non equivalent
control group design
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8
45. 6.Time series with multiple institutions
of treatment
O1 O2 X O3 O4 X O5 O6 X O7 O8
46. 7. Time series with intensified
treatment
O1 O2 X O3 O4 X+1 O5 O6 X+2 O7 O8
47. 8.Time series with withdrawn &
reinstituted treatment
O1 O2 X O3 O4 (-X) O5 O6 X O7 O8
48. Strengths of Quasi- experiments
Practical
Difficult to conduct true experiments in nursing
research in real life setting
Several rival hypotheses competing with
intervention as explanation for the results
Take the weaknesses into account in interpreting
results
49. Limitations of Quasi experiments
Several rival hypotheses competing with
intervention as explanation for the results
Take the weaknesses into account in
interpreting results
50. Internal validity
Extent to which it is possible to make an
inference that the IV is truly causing or
influencing the DV & that the relationship
between the two is not the spurious effect of an
extraneous variable
51. Threats to internal validity
History
Selection
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Mortality
53. Threats to external validity
Expectancy effects
Novelty effects
Interaction of history & treatment effects
Experimenter effects
Measurement effects
54. 3. One group pretest posttest design
(pre experimental)
Pretest Intervention Posttest
O1 X O2
55. More commonly used design and Has serious
weaknesses that findings are often uninterpretable
Pretest scores cannot serve the same function as a
control group
Events can occur between the pre & posttest that can
alter the response to posttest
These events can serve as alternate hypotheses
57. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
It is a research design in which variables
are not deliberately manipulated, nor is the
setting controlled. Data in non experimental
research are generally collected through the use
of questionnaires, interviews, observations,
literature reviews and critical incident
technique.
58. Need of non experimental designs
Where……..
1. Independent variable cannot be manipulated.
2. Unethical to manipulate the independent
variables.
3. Not practically possible to conduct experiments.
59. Types of non experimental research designs
1. Descriptive designs
✓Univariant descriptive designs
✓Exploratory descriptive designs
✓Comparative descriptive designs
2.Correlational / Ex-post facto design
✓Prospective designs
✓Retrospective designs
60. 3. Developmental research designs
✓Cross sectional survey designs
✓Longitudinal survey designs
4. Epidemiological studies
✓Case control studies
✓Cohort studies
5. Survey research designs
61. 1.DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
The purpose of this study is to observe,
describe and document aspects of a situation as it
naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as a
starting point for hypothesis generation or theory
development.
62. a. Univariant descriptive designs
This designs are undertaken to describe the
frequency of occurrence of a phenomenon.
There are mainly two types of descriptive
studies in the field of epidemiology; incidence and
prevalence studies.
Eg…….
Prevalence of backache among antenatal
mothers admitted in antenatal ward.
63. b. Exploratory design
This design is used to identify, explore and
describe the existing phenomenon and its related
factors.
Eg………
An exploratory study on the contributing factors
of sleep disturbance among antenatal mothers attending
antenatal OPD.
64. C. Comparative designs
Comparative designs involves comparing and
contrasting two or more samples of the study
subjects on one or more variables, often at a single
point of time.
Eg………
A comparative study on health problems rural
and urban older people in dehradun district,
uttarakhand.
65. 2. CORRELATIONAL / EX-POST FACTO
RESEARCH DESIGN
This is a non experimental research designs,
where the researcher examines the relationship
between two or more variables in a natural setting
without manipulation or control.
66. a. Prospective research design
A design in which the researcher relates the
present to the future is a prospective research
design.
Eg…….
A prospective correlational study to assess the
relationship of maternal infection during pregnancy and
fetal development and pregnancy outcome.
67. b. Retrospective research designs
A design in which the researcher studies the
current phenomenon by seeking information from
past is a retrospective research design.
Eg………
A retrospective correlational study on the
lifestyle practices of the patients diagnosed with
coronary artery disease admitted in CCU, in Himalayan
hospital, Dehradun.
68. 3. DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
Developmental research design examines the
phenomenon with reference to time. Developmental
research designs are generally used as adjunct
research designs with other research designs such
as cross sectional descriptive, longitudinal
correlational studies.
69. a. Cross sectional design
Cross sectional research design is one in
which researcher collects data at particular point
of time ( one period of data collection)
Eg………
A study to assess the awareness on swine
flu among people of an area.
70. b. Longitudinal designs
Longitudinal designs is used to collect the
data over an extended time period.
Eg……..
Perception of nursing students towards
profession from the beginning of nursing program to
its end.
71. 4. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
Epidemiological studies are generally
conducted to investigate causes of different
diseases in either prospective approaches (cause to
effect) or retrospective approaches (effect to
cause).
72. a. Cohort studies
In this design, a longitudinal approach is used
to investigate the occurrence of a disease in
existing presumed causes.
Eg……
Researcher longitudinally observes the smokers for
development of lung cancer.
73. b. Case – control studies
In this design, causes of a disease are
investigated after the occurrence of a disease.
Eg……..
The researcher investigates the history of
smoking in patients diagnosed with lung cancer.
74. 5. SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGNS
A survey is a research design which is used to
collect information from different subjects within
a given population having same characteristics of
interest.
Eg
Sample survey
Population survey
75. Types of survey
1. A/to nature of phenomenon under the study
✓Descriptive
✓Exploratory
✓Comparative
✓Correlational
2. A/to methods of data collection
✓Written survey
✓Oral survey
✓Electronic survey
76. Advantages of non experimental designs
1. Most suitable for the nursing research
studies
2. Extremely useful to enhance our
understanding about the real world settings
around us.
3. There are many research situations in which
it is simply not practical to conduct true
experiment.
77. Disadvantages of non experimental designs
1. Results obtained and the relationship between
the dependent and independent variables can never
be absolutely clear.
2. Non experimental studies are conducted for
comparative purposes using non randomly selected
groups , which may not be homogeneous and may
affect the generalizability of the study results.
78. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Qualitative research dealing with
phenomena that are difficult or impossible to
quantify mathematically, such as beliefs,
meanings, attributes, and symbols; it may
involve content analysis. Qualitative research
approaches have somewhat short and less well
defined plans.
79. IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
✓ Study social and cultural phenomena,
✓ Inductive approach for delivering and expanding
knowledge.
✓ Useful for exploring facts and developing
concepts about an area of interest that has
received little research attention.
80. CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
✓ Emerge as study advances
✓ Flexible and elastic
✓ Multiple strategies of data collection
(triangulation)
✓ Holistic
✓ Intense researcher's involvement
✓ Ongoing data analysis.
81. Phases of qualitative research designs
✓ Orientation and overview phase
✓ Focused exploration
✓ Confirmation and closure
82. TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION
✓ Interactive interview
✓ Written description by participants
✓ Observation
83. TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DESIGNS
✓ Phenomenological research
✓ Ethnographic research
✓ Grounded theory
✓ Historical research
✓ Case study
✓ Action research
84. 1. Phenomenological research
It describes the structure of experiences as
they present themselves to consciousness, without
recourse to theory, deduction or assumptions from
other disciplines.
Eg……….
A phenomenological study on lived
experiences of tsunami victims in selected villages
of Tamilnadu.
85. 2. Ethnographic research
Focuses on the sociology of meaning
through close field observation of socio cultural
phenomena.
Eg…………..
A ethnographic study on socio cultural beliefs of
the people about antenatal, natal and postnatal care of
women in selected tribal communities of Rajasthan.
86. 3. Grounded theory
The term grounded theory means
that the theory developed from the research
is ‘ grounded’ or has its roots in the data from
which it was derived.
Eg……………
A grounded theory research on the adaptation
levels of people with post injury permanent physical
disabilities at AIIMS, Newdelhi.
87. 4. Historical research design
Systematic collection and objective
evaluation of data related to past occurrences in
order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects
or trends of these events that may help to explain
present events and anticipate future events.
Eg……….
A historical research on development of
nursing in India.
88. 5. Case study
Attempts to focus on a phenomenon by
studying in depth a single case example. The
case can be an individual, an event, a group or
an institution.
Eg………
A case study on the availability and utilization of
the emergency services in civil hospital, Ludhiana.
89. 6. Action research
Action research is a form of applied
research that tries to empower people through a
process that constructs and uses knowledge. It
tries to find practical solutions to problems
existing in the framework of an organization.
Eg……….
An action research on the practicability of
western nursing practice protocols in public and
private Indian health care organizations.
90. References
Polit D.F and Beck C.T, Nursing Research
Generating & Assessing evidence for Nursing
Practice 2015, Wolters Kluwer (India)
Houser, Janet, Nursing Research Reading,
using & creating evidence 2008 by Jones &
Bartlett Publishers.
91. ▪ Hott J.B & Budin, W.C Notter’s essentials of
Nursing Research. Sixth edition. 1999 Springer
Publishing Company.
▪ Johnross @ C.W Com.net Way of approaching
research quantitative design.
▪ Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2009)
Quantitative Research.
▪ Sharma SK. Nursing Research and Statistics.3rd
Elsevier Publisher.
92. ▪ Neill James htm, Quantitative Research
designs 03 Aug 2003.
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